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PRODUCTS AND MANAGEMENT GOALS
NTFP
USE AND SUSTAINABILITY: THE EXAMPLE OF PRUNUS AFRICANA IN CAMEROON
by Jobst -Michael
Schröder
Introduction
Since the early
1990s, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have been assumed to effectively contribute
to the preservation of tropical forests and the improvement of forest dwellers'
economic situation by raising awareness of the value of natural resources. This
simple and promising approach was rapidly put into practice in many forestry-related
development projects in tropical countries. The case of Prunus africana
in Cameroon prooves, however, that the highly advocated NTFP panacea is not
always positively effective.
The commodity
The bark of P.
africana (family Rosaceae) is a well established pharmaceutical raw material
on the world market. The tree is indigenous to the afromontane mountains from
Madagascar to Sao Tomé and from Ethiopia to South Africa. The evergreen
tree can reach heights of 30 m and a dbh of 150 cm when mature. In Cameroon
the tree occurs naturally in three distinct areas of the evergreen moist forests
on Mt. Cameroon at elevations between 800 and 2000m asl. Besides timber utilisation
the most important value of the tree species is its pharmaceutical significance.
This is due to medically active ingredients in the bark of the tree. The European
pharmaceutical market, in particular, has required substantial quantities of
raw and processed bark material from Cameroon. It is estimated that up to 3000
metric tons of bark or bark products were exported from Cameroon per year in
the early 1990s. The market value of the final product is estimated at US $220
million a year.
P. africana exhibits complete bark regrowth after a careful debarking of small panels leaving patches to nourish the tree and to produce new bark. A new harvest is then possible after 5-7 years. Thus, the tree species offers ideal prerequisites for a sustainable use of a non-timber forest resource as long as the harvest is carried out carefully and by skilled workers. The current harvesting arrangement is a regional licence system, granting permits to a restricted number of bark merchants for a certain quantity of bark.
Because of economic hardship and a certain dissatisfaction with the licence system, parts of the local population around Mt. Cameroon became involved in uncontrolled overexploitation of Prunus bark, including tree felling for complete bark stripping. An inventory carried out in the SW of Mt. Cameroon revealed in 1996 that the bark harvest exceeded sustainable utilisation by 400 to 800%. Continued harvesting at this level was calculated to be possible for only 5 to 7 years, after which local resources would be exhausted and the tree species face local extinction.
Factors of failure
To understand
the unfortunate process in regard to the state of P. africana around
Mt. Cameroon, it is necessary to understand the following factors:
These factors caused a widespread and increasing dissatisfaction among the population. Younger people epecially, perceived the forests as being a source of quick and easy cash income. When the Cameroonian currency suddenly devaluated by 50% in the early 1990s, traditional regulations were not able to adapt to cope with the intensified economic pressure. Villagers began to compete to strip all bark from Prunus trees, disregarding all traditional control arrangements and sustainable harvesting practices.
Analysis
Several factors
caused the unsustainable use of a promising NTFP in the moist forests around
Mt. Cameroon. The traditional control system of sustainable forest utilisation
worked well as long as there were no external disturbances. Historical, social
and legal conditions caused a substantial shift of attitude towards natural
resources among the local population. Triggered by economic hardship, the possibility
of gaining cash income from the forests led to a careless exploitation of a
valuable resource previously protected by local people. Examples from other
parts of the tropics and with different NTFPs have come to similar conclusions.
Communities experiencing a daily struggle to meet their basic needs, cannot
be expected to prioritise ecological concerns. The case of P. africana
therefore suggests that pressure on tropical forests cannot always be eased
by the commercialisation and sustainable use of NTFPs.
Dr. J-M. Schröder
Institute for World
Forestry, Federal
Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products
Leuschnerstr. 91,
21027 Hamburg, Germany
Tel: +49 40 73962
100, Fax: +49 40
73962 480
WILD
EDIBLE FUNGI, MIOMBO WOODLAND AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS
By Eric Boa
and Gerald Meke
In 1999 we began a three year project to investigate the wild edible fungi associated with miombo woodlands. These woodlands consist of native tree species, many of which depend on fungus-root associations or mycorrhizae for their survival. An unusually large number of these associations are ectomycorrhizal and the fungus partner produces fruiting bodies above ground during the main rainy season. A significant number of the fungal species are edible. Many of them are poorly known to science.
Miombo woodlands occur from Zimbabwe to Tanzania and Mozambique to Angola. They are extensively used by local people. In Malawi and other countries in the region, wild edible fungi are an important source of food when traditional sources of nutrition are scarce. There are significant roadside markets, predominantly for local trade, as well as a limited movement of produce to more lucrative urban markets, such as Blantyre and Lilongwe.
Wild edible fungi are perhaps the least understood NTFPs from miombo woodlands. There are major gaps in data concerning the types and names of wild edible fungi, the size of harvests and whether increased pressure on the miombo woodlands is leading to a decline in productivity. Despite the extensive local knowledge about edible fungi that still exists in Malawi - as witnessed by the bewildering variety of local names - there is also suspicion and caution about poisonous varieties that has been acquired from Europeans.
Another reason for the weak history of research on wild edible fungi is the scarcity of specialists to identify them. CABI Bioscience has been able to assist in identifications through the help of Paul Kirk and Graham Piearce, who are slowly getting to grips with the diversity of edible and non-edible species. In the process, they have had to rethink the European concept of some fungus groups. There remains, however, a great deal to be done in providing taxonomic support in this area.
A renewed interest in NTFPs has led to more research and information gathering. It is vital that this research addresses the essential link between NTFPs and the needs and concerns of rural communities. This is something that the Miombo Edible Fungi project has been striving to achieve. Originally conceived by Dr Jim Waller of CABI Bioscience, and developed jointly by Eric Boa together with the late Jimmy Lowore of the Forestry Research Institute of Malawi, this project is funded by the UK Department for International Development . Its main aim is to study the importance of wild edible fungi to local people, investigate levels of productivity and determine the potential of these fungi to improve livelihoods.
Work began in March 1999. During the first field season, plots were established in four forest reserves in Malawi and regularly monitored during the three month growing season. Surveys of local markets were carried out during the same period (January to April 2000). A preliminary analysis of results from Liwonde and Perekezi showed a total income for traded edible fungi of around US$2000 and US$800 respectively. The weight of edible fungi sold was approximately 5500 tons for Liwonde and 5000 tons for Perekezi. The actual number harvested is likely to be much higher since we assume that a significant proportion is consumed directly by the pickers.
Liwonde and Perekezi are only two of the many areas in Malawi where fungi are sold by the roadside. There are local markets in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and other countries with miombo woodlands but data on volume and value are rarely available. Our own research is helping to show that wild edible fungi are an important and valuable resource and we urgently need more information so that we can help to improve and sustain rural livelihoods through the application of appropriate knowledge.
A priority for the present recording season is to tackle some of the taxonomic gaps that we sense will limit our ability to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of rural communities. We are currently gathering our second set of field data and looking generally for closer links with organisations and researchers interested in the topic of wild edible fungi. Ties have been established across the border with the FAO project led by Patrick Mushove in Nampula and we look forward to closer collaboration in the future.
We held a one day meeting in July 2000, attended by Malawi foresters, NGOs and researchers. Eric Boa has produced a detailed proceedings which brings together discussions held at the meeting, other reports on wild edible fungi and the preliminary findings from the field and market surveys. There are also extensive bibliographies and an account by Dr Anxious Masuka from Zimbabwe of his work there and in Mozambique. Copies can be obtained from Dr Boa. We would be pleased to hear from others with an interest in any of the topics and issues raised in this article.
This publication is an output from a research project funded by the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID. [R7250 Flexibility Fund]
Dr Eric Boa
CABI Bioscience
Bakeham Lane, Egham
Surrey TW20 9TY,
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 1491 829044,
Fax: 44 1491 829100
Email: e.boa@cabi.org
Gerald Meke
Forestry Research
Institute
PO Box 270, Zomba,
Malawi
Tel: +265 522866,
Fax: +265 522782
Email: gmeke@chirunga.sdnp.org.mw
A
REVIEW OF CURRENT RESEARCH ACTIVITIES BEING UNDERTAKEN BY THE INTERNATIONAL
ECOTOURISM SOCIETY
By Lynnaire
Sheridan
In recent decades, ecotourism has emerged as a popular type of nature-based tourism. The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines this activity as "responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people". Essentially, it is small-scale, ecologically sustainable tourism that takes place in natural areas, it encourages the environmental education of tourists, contributes to conservation while promoting the economic and social well-being of the local host community. As such, ecotourism is dependent on natural areas, particularly national parks and managed forests.
Ecotourism has attracted the attention of protected area managers because ecotourists are fascinated by areas of high biodiversity but, with good tour interpretation, can come to appreciate the intricacies of any ecosystem. Currently there are no European data on ecotourists but North American research indicates that these tourists contribute to conservation through entrance fees to protected areas and also pay more for their tours if there is a contribution to conservation by the tour operator (tour operators have even established non-profit organizations to help protect the natural resource). Ecotourists boost local economies with longer stays and support local values when they select authentic experiences over commercialized products.
TIES has a dynamic network of 1700 members in 74 different countries that tries to promote the values of ecotourism. Our main initiatives reflect the needs of our members, a diverse group comprised of ecotour operators, protected area managers, academics and ecotourists. This core group not only supports our work but many members practise it successfully on the ground. Current TIES initiatives include "Your Travel Choice Makes a Difference", Marine Ecotourism Guidelines, Ecolodge Guidelines, "The Business of Nature Lodges" and the Regional Ecotourism Assessment Program (REAP). We are also preparing for 2002, the United Nations International Year of Ecotourism.
In 1999 TIES launched the "Your Travel Choice Makes a Difference" campaign to increase consumer awareness of the environmental impact of poorly managed nature-based tourism. Its focus is educating tourists about sustainable nature tourism and creating awareness of the powerful choices a tourist can make for sustainability during travel planning. There has been considerable demand for the consumer brochure (it is about to be reprinted) and the TIES website (www.ecotourism.org) incorporates "Travel Choice" pages that provide helpful hints on choosing tour operators who support the values of ecotourism.
At the international level, TIES network has set about developing global guidelines and encouraging best practice in different aspects of ecotourism industry. The Nature Tour Operator Guidelines were prepared via international review and released in 1993. They have received considerable industry support and encourage sustainable business practices. In 2001, TIES will release the product of five years of research and global consultation which have culminated in the Ecolodge Guidelines and Marine Ecotourism Guidelines.
The year 2001 will also see the publication of "The Business of Nature Lodges", the results of the first-ever study to investigate the economic viability of ecolodges. TIES members deemed it essential to research all aspects of ecotourism's sustainability; ecological, socio-cultural and economic. This research also addressed requests from development funding agencies for "hard" figures that would enable assessment of ecotourism as a tool for conservation and poverty alleviation.
The REAP research endeavor currently has a pilot study being undertaken in Belize. Primarily intended for conservation and development agencies to assess the viability of ecotourism in a region, REAP will provide a standardized system for regional ecotourism assessment and, ideally, attract funding to projects that will be ecologically, socially and economically viable with the aim of maximizing the value of ecotourism as a conservation tool.
The year 2002 will provide TIES with a unique opportunity to showcase our experiences over the last ten years and promote the true principles of ecotourism. The broader tourism industry is growing at an unprecedented rate, ecotourism is only a niche within the larger industry but ecotourism will encourage the conservation of our world's precious natural resources and promote the well-being of our communities.
For further information
please contact:
Lynnaire Maria Sheridan
Information Specialist, The International Ecotourism Society
P.O. Box 668
Burlington, VT 05402, USA
Tel: +1 (802) 651-9818, Fax: +1 (802) 651-9819
Email: lynnaire@ecotourism.org
http//:www.ecotourism.org
DEVELOPING
AND TESTING CRITERIA AND INDICATORS FOR THE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION OF ECOTOURISM
IN TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
By Bernd Stecker
Introduction
Ecotourism is
the fasted-growing sector of the world's largest industry, tourism. According
to development and conservation organisations, the potential of ecotourism to
increase the economic attractiveness of conserving tropical rain forests should
be promoted. It is argued that with this comparatively "wise" form of forest
resource use
This would lead to a greater interest by the parties concerned, in maintaining and preserving protected tropical forests more effectively. But how can one determine if these ecotourism goals have been attained in specific cases? In order to address this problem, criteria and indicators (C&I) were developed as a tool for the assessment, analysis and evaluation of ecotourism in protected rain forests.
Methods
First, a broad
literature review was conducted of the experiences made world wide with tourism
in natural areas. During this process numerous parameters were identified and
systematised. In a following brainstorming process all relevant parameters
were classified either as a criterion or an indicator, resulting in a working
set of 70 C&I. With this set a comparable case study was carried out in
two National Parks in Malaysia. Here it was found that some C&I were either
not applicable, unsuitable or difficult to assess. Thus, in an iterative process,
the C&I were constantly modified or eliminated according to practicability
and efficiency, resulting in an end set of 38 C&I.
Indicators are the essential element of the assessment process and are based on the availability of data. These were generated by (a) reviewing secondary data sources, (b) expert interviews, and (c) participatory rural appraisal techniques (PRA) such as semi-structured interviews, direct and participatory observation and transect walks. The evaluation was carried out by comparing the actual "measured" value of an indicator with a reference value or a norm. As ecotourism is a relatively new concept, generally accepted norms do not yet exist for most indicators. Thus, on the basis of the available literature and the opinions of experts, three "trend categories" were applied to express either a favourable () no clear () or an unfavourable () trend for each indicator towards the fulfilment of a criterion and subsequently of compliance with a goal.
The case study areas are located in West Malaysia. Taman Negara National Park (TN) in the north-east covers an area of 4,000 kmē and is the country's largest protected lowland rain forest area. About 8,000 Malay villagers live within or adjacent to the park boundaries. The park is the most popular nature tourism destination and experienced a boom in tourism in the mid-1990s with 45,000 visitors per year. Endau-Rompin State Park (ER) is located in the south, contains lowland rain forest and is still home to 600 indigenous forest dwellers. The park covers an area of 90,000 ha. With 2,000 visitors per year, the Park is still in the pioneer phase of tourism development; the infrastructure is minimal.
Results
Table
2 presents the final set of C&I. The right column contains the results
of the C&I testing in the case study areas. Particularly with regard to
criteria III to VI, which are the decisive ones for achieving the goals connected
with ecotourism, the results in both parks reveal some different trends.
In Taman Negara the goals have not yet been reached. The over-use of highly frequented locations results in environmental damage such as erosion of trails and river banks, water pollution, destruction of vegetation, loss of species and abnormal behaviour of wild animals. Although tourism is booming in the park and considerable revenue is generated as a result of the money spent by the tourists in the park, 90% of this leaks out of the park region. Economic multiplier effects on rural development are therefore minimal. Also, the revenue generated by the park administration from entrance, use and concession fees does not even cover half of the management costs to provide the tourism opportunity. Insufficient education and training of the local population restrict their employment opportunities to the less paid and unskilled jobs. Furthermore, the revenue from tourism is unequally distributed while, at the same time, rising prices and the increase of usage bans have a negative effect on local people's means of securing a livelihood. The reasons for this are primarily to be found in the lack of a comprehensive and effective management plan, inadequate control, monitoring and visitor management techniques, diverging interests of the parties involved and, particularly, the insufficient participation of the local population. This results in lack of acceptance of the protected area and constant use conflicts between the park administration and the local residents.
By contrast, the ecotourism goals in Endau-Rompin are mainly being achieved. In order to minimise negative environmental and socio-economic impacts, a comprehensive development and management plan was drawn up before large numbers of tourists were allowed to enter the park. Also, from the beginning a cooperative ecotourism management concept was implemented involving park authorities, nature tour operators, NGOs and local residents. Due to the limited infrastructure in the park, considerable income and employment opportunities for the local population exist as the tourists have to take up almost all services offered by the local villagers. This has lead to decreasing 'illegal' resource use by the local population while, at the same time, the acceptance of the protected forest area is increasing. However, only a revision of the C&I testing after a certain period of time will reveal if this positive development can still be confirmed once the tourism boom phase has been reached.
Conclusions
For both case study
areas the proposed C&I set was found to be basically suitable - and doable
in a justified amount of time - for the assessment, analysis and evaluation
of the fundamental framework conditions and preconditions for ecotourism as
well as the ecological and socio-economic impacts accompanying. Looking at all
C&I together, recommendations for action could be made for those indicators
showing an unfavourable trend towards the fulfilment of a criterion. Development
organisations could, for instance, apply this instrument as a guiding 'checklist'
to assess and analyse the eligibility of ecotourism for aid. Also, the C&I
set can be used as a basis for further evaluation approaches, such as the development
of an eco-label for protected areas utilised by tourism. Finally, although
its role should not be overestimated, it is recommended that greater importance
be attributed to the potential of ecotourism as a tool for the conservation
of tropical forests.
For further information
please contact:
Dr. Bernd Stecker,
Faculty of Forestry,
Fachhochschule Eberswalde,
Alfred-Moeller-Str.
1
16225 Eberswalde,
Germany
Tel: +49-3334-65450
Email: bstecker@aol.com