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CASE STUDIES: LESSONS LEARNED
NTFPs:
AN INSTRUMENT IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?
By Wim Dijkman
Integrating C&D
Since the
late 1980s the Dutch international conservation and development community has
had an interest in NTFP exploitation as an alternative to timber exploitation
in tropical rainforests. Following a study by the Dutch Committee for IUCN on
the economic importance of NTFPs in Southeast Asia (De Beer & McDermott
1989),several Dutch development agencies have been supporting southern initiatives
to improve income generation for forest dependent people through NTFP exploitation.
One of these was a survey of NTFPs with an export market, carried out by the Prince Bernhard Centre for International Nature Conservation of Utrecht University together with IUCN, in several Latin American countries from 1990-92 (Broekhoven 1996). This survey highlighted several interesting products and regions with ample international market opportunities (Brazil nuts, palm heart, tagua nuts, etc.) and enabled us to contribute to the Tropenbos research strategy (Ros-Tonen et. al. 1995). It also revealed that several key assumptions underlying the hypothesis that NTFP extraction is an effective strategy for integrating conservation and development objectives had not been tested. These included the assumption that NTFP extraction is a more sustainable land use than timber exploitation, as it is considered to have a lower impact on the structure of the forest and species composition. A second assumption is that NTFP extraction is more labour intensive and provides a better and more constant income for forest dependent people. To test these assumptions and try to extrapolate our results to NTFP extraction in general, we developed the PROMAB programme in northern Bolivia.
PROMAB (Programa Manejo
de Bosques de la Amazonía Boliviana)
PROMAB is an
international research, training and extension programme fostering the sustainable
exploitation and management of forest resources in northern Bolivia. It is a
joint effort of the Instituto para el Hombre Agricultura y Ecología,
Bolivia, the Universidad Técnica del Beni, Bolivia and Utrecht University
in association with the Center for International Forestry Research. Funding
is provided through the Dutch Development cooperation, Utrecht University and
CIFOR.
PROMAB facilitates forest exploitation through technical assistance to a wide range of stakeholders in the rainforests of the Bolivian Amazon. The area is largely covered with relatively undisturbed rainforest, mainly due to low population pressure. Rural population density is approximately 0.002/km2. The main economic centre is Riberalta. The area has an interesting history of NTFP extraction, starting in the mid 19th century with quinine and - at a larger scale - rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). The rubber boom (1887-1917) resulted in immigration of nearly one hundred thousand people from all over Bolivia and abroad. The rubber was extracted in barracas (forest estates) owned by a patron. The tappers were dependent on this patron through a debt-peonage system. Rubber exploitation declined gradually during the 20th century and Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) extraction emerged within the same system. These two products were complementary as rubber was tapped during the 'dry' season and nuts are collected during the 'wet' season. In the early 1980s rubber extraction ceased and the main source of employment in the region nowadays is the Brazil nut industry, occupying 50% of the workforce. Palm heart extraction (Euterpe precatoria) only occurred for a short period (5 years) and has stopped. Timber exploitation for export is increasing. Several other forest resources are exploited for the local and national market, such as Jatata (Geonoma sp.) leaves as roofing material.
Sustainable?
PROMAB analyses
the sustainability of NTFP extraction from different perspectives: ecological,
economic and social. The ecological perspective includes two components: (1)
the impact of extraction on biodiversity, and (2) the maintenance of the productivity
of the resource. We focus on the impact of extraction on fauna and the consequences
of the harvesting of the three important products for population dynamics of
species providing these resources. Models for population dynamics - matrix models
- are used to evaluate the sustainability of current exploitation. Furthermore,
the application of these models for woody plants has been reviewed and an additional
type of sensitivity analysis for matrix models presented (Zuidema 2000). These
models provide data on productivity, the basis for analysing economic profitability
of forest product extraction. For the two most important forest products, Brazil
nut and timber, we analysed the profits made in the exploitation process: from
harvesting to the processed end product. Based on the results, we can make recommendations
such as the need for proper taxation of the forest resource through the government.
Furthermore we have measured the impact of NTFPs on the economy of rural households
and analysed how extractivists perceive farming and extraction of forest products.
This has revealed how different farming styles depend on access to forest resources,
life history of the extractivist, distance to urban centres, etc.
What we have learnt so far...
Implementation in management
Based on the
data we collected, we are advising the Bolivian government on the implementation
of the Bolivian Forest Law. At local and provincial level we support communities
in writing forest management plans for their concessions. Furthermore we provide
assistance to all the other stakeholders in the forestry sector.
Evaluation
Under specific
conditions NTFP extraction can provide a reasonable income for forest dwellers
and can take place without causing much damage to the forest structure. Brazil
nut is a (rare) example of such a product. NTFP extraction is, however, part
of a forestry
transition process in which the opportunity costs of forest management for forest products are still too high. Unless the (inter)national market is willing to pay for the extra costs of this type of forest management, people are eventually tempted to convert the forest into agricultural land. It is expected that Bolivia will produce the first certified NTFPs in 2001.
Wim Dijkman
Prince Bernhard Centre for International Nature Conservation
PO Box 80084, 3508 TB Utrecht, The Netherlands
Tel:+31 30 2536835, Fax:+31 30 2518366
Email: w.dijkman@bio.uu.nl
http://www.bio.uu.nl/pbc
René Boot
PROMAB
Casilla 107, Riberalta, Beni, Bolivia
Tel: +591 852 2996, Fax: +591 852 3243
Email: Promab@latinwide.com
http://www.bio.uu.nl/pbc
IMPORTANCE
OF NTFPs FOR THE BETSIMISARAKA PEOPLE OF THE BEFORONA REGION, EASTERN MADAGASCAR:
FINDINGS OF A CASE STUDY
By Lala Razafy
Fara
Baseline
Forests in Madagascar
are known to contain high levels of potentially useful biodiversity. Unfortunately,
the importance of forest resources for local populations is often ignored because
of outsiders' large-scale economic priorities. The Beforona region of Eastern
Madagascar is historically known to be forested. The local Betsimisaraka people
depend on forest resources such as humus, timber and non-timber forest products
(NTFPs).
The importance of these NTFPs was studied using a holistic approach that included social and economic surveys as well as floristic inventories. The Beforona region is characterized by steep slopes and a scarcity of cultivable land. The principal activity of the Betsimisaraka is itinerant slash and burn agriculture focused on the production of mountain-rice. Given logistic constraints, Betsimisaraka households have at least three huts, including one in the village for permanent living, one near the forest for temporary living, and one for food storage located in or near the village.
The socio-economic surveys were conducted in 11 villages encompassing 128 households. A common village selection criterion was its location bordering the forest. Socio-economic information was collected through informal and formal inquiries conducted at household level. Biological inventories were conducted in the natural forest only, with an aim of understanding the forest's potential for timber and NTFP production.
Uses of NTFPs
For this study,
NTFPs were classified into products having nutritional, medicinal, social and
commercial values.
Nutritional use
Food-related
NTFPs were subdivided into animal and plant products. Overall, NTFPs play an
important role in the diet of the Betsimisaraka people, with 76% of households
using NTFP foods. Some 2% eat only animal foods, while another 45% eat only
plant foods, and 29% eat both. NTFP foods are used for direct subsistence. Animal
NTFPs include mammals (23% of households), birds (12%), larvae (7%), honey (5%)
and aquatic food ( 53%) from forest creeks. Plant products are of two main types:
liana tubers (Dioscorea spp) are collected by 55% of the households and
palm heart by 45%. Some fruit are gathered in an opportunistic way as people
walk in the forest.
Medicinal use
Only 23% of Betsimisaraka
households used medicinal plants, with most preferring to go to the regional
health care centre. Of the 31 species used as medicinal plants, 12 are from
the natural forest. The others can be collected in open areas. In most cases,
the leaves and bark are used as a decoction for healing different diseases,
most commonly: stomach-ache, intestinal diseases, measles, flu, wounds, sores,
overwork, malaria, dizziness, nausea and bleeding.
Social uses
Social uses include
house building and furniture (which can be grouped as handicraft products exceptionally
used in the house), and clothing. Construction is the most important use of
NTFPs in Betsimisaraka life, with houses consisting almost entirely of plant
materials. The most commonly used NTFPs in construction are bark from the Sterculiaceae
family (98 % of the households) and lianas (94%), generally used as ropes. Pandanus
leaves (Pandanus spp) are used for walls (56 %), roofs (20 %), doors
and handicraft products, while the trunk of the tree fern (Cyathea spp)
is used by a minority (1%) of households as a weather resistant support
in houses and storehouses. Palm trunks (Ravenea spp, Louvelia spp,
Chrysalidocarpus spp) are used by a minority as substitute material for
walls and floors. The whole plant of Ravinala (Ravenala madagascariensis)
is used for multiple construction uses (max. 52%) as well as the whole plant
of (Raphia ruffa) (2 %). Raphia leaf fibre is used to make clothing (1%).
Commercial use
A diverse range
of NTFPs is commercialized, including potted tree ferns, orchids, pandanus,
and aquatic products. Revenue obtained from sales is used for subsistence. Selling
orchids and tree ferns requires special authorization but the need to make a
living means that local people nevertheless sell some of these products directly
to retailers on the black market.
Conclusion
In order of importance,
the Betsimisaraka make greatest use of NTFPs for construction, followed by nutrition.
Inventories in the natural forest show that gathering NTFPs and wood leads to
disturbance. NTFP availability diminishes inside disturbed forests that are
generally located near villages and temporary houses. A more sustainable use
of NTFPs needs to be promoted in the future.
For further information
please contact:
RAZAFY FARA Lala
University of Antananarivo
School of Agronomy,
Forestry Department
B.P. 175, 101
Antananarivo, MADAGASCAR
Email: faralala@hotmail.com
or fl.razafy@simicro.mg
Tel: + 261 20 22
316 09
THE
IMPORTANCE OF NTFPs FOR LOCAL PEOPLE IN BURKINA FASO
By Rüdiger
Wittig and Karen Hahn-Hadjali
The use of wild plants to obtain food, medicines and many other vital commodities is of extraordinary importance for the rural population of West Africa. Surveys conducted among the various ethnic groups in Burkina Faso (Mossi, Fulbe, Gulimancéba and Dagara) and Benin (Fulbe, Waama and Bétamaribé) have shown that more than two-thirds of all plant species are put to use (Wittig et al. 2000). These plants are employed predominantly to produce traditional herbal medicines (78.6 %), as pasture (fodder) (43.6 %), and as food for human beings (41.9 %). To a lesser extent, they are used as a source of tanning agents, dyes (7.7 %) and fibres (8.5 %) and in traditional veterinary medicine (7.7 %) (Hahn 1996, Kéré 1998, Wittig & Martin 1995). In this context, non-woody parts of trees and bushes (i.e. non-timber forest products) such as leaves, flowers, fruits, resin, sap, bark, seeds and roots also play a major role. Another factor that should not be forgotten is the importance of bushes for beekeeping (cf. e.g. Guinko et al. 1992). In the eastern part of Burkina Faso (Tapoa, Gourma, Kompienga, Boulgou and Gnagna Provinces), such uses were documented for 117 species, which is more than 80% of the total number of woody species. For most of these species, several uses were documented.
Great importance is attached to the medicinal uses of plants in this part of the world. More than 80 % of the population of Burkino Faso (Guinko 1984) rely on traditional medical treatments for common illnesses; the low cost of herbal medicines is an important factor here. People consult university trained doctors only for severe medical problems. For many diseases, numerous species are used either alone or in combination with other species. The inhabitants of southeastern Burkina Faso make use of 92 woody plants; in the majority of plants (65.2%) the roots are used, followed by the leaves (46.7%) and bark (44.6 %). To a lesser extent fruits (9.8 %), flowers (2.2 %) and seeds (2.2 %) are used, followed by thorns (1.1 %) and sap (1.1 %).
When woody plants are used as a source of food, it is usually the leaves which are eaten as vegetables or employed as seasoning. In several cases, the flowers and/or fruit are also eaten.
We documented nine woody plants used as a source of tanning agents or dyes in the eastern part of Burkina Faso. Moreover, fibres are obtained from 10 species. Species diversity plays a less crucial role in pasture than in the use of plants for human nutrition. What is decisive for animal fodder is not individual species, but groups of species occurring with spatial and temporal proximity. During the dry period, a number of species - in particular, Afzelia africana, Khaya senegalensis and Pterocarpus erinaceus - are pruned.
Whereas the harvesting of flowers, fruits and thorns does not impair the vitality of the plants from which they are taken, practices such as frequently tearing off leaves to obtain food for human beings or animals and, in particular, chopping off entire branches as animal fodder can damage trees, especially if these practices coincide with an unfavourable climatic situation such as drought. Other practices, such as removing large pieces of bark or digging out parts of roots, invariably have a detrimental effect and often culminate in tree death. For this reason, reforestation measures or efforts to plant groups of individual trees should focus on those species which are presently being depleted at an especially high rate at the locations where they grow in the wild.
For the list of references
please contact the author.
Prof. Dr. R. Wittig
Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie
Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität
D-60054 Frankfurt
am Main
Germany
MIOMBO
WOODLAND UTILISATION BY SMALL-SCALE FARMERS. EXAMPLES FROM FOUR VILLAGES IN
HANDENI-DISTRICT, TANZANIA
By Marion
Karmann
Background of the study
Miombo woodlands
cover about 48 % of Tanzania's land surface and are a settlement area for small-scale
farmers and cattle-breeders. The population is sparse, but the area covered
by miombo is decreasing rapidly. In many regions dominated by miombo, deforestation
is mainly caused by small-scale farming together with the increasing activities
of professional charcoal miners and the establishment of plantations or settlement
areas. In the research area, Handeni, however, degradation mainly results from
forest fires connected with shifting cultivation, hunting, and other factors.
Methods
The principal
objective of the study was to reach a better understanding of the utilisation
of miombo woodlands in the research area through descriptive analysis. A derived
objective was to describe the potential development of the region to meet subsistence
needs and improved income generation, as well as examining ergonomic factors
such as labour organisation and training.
The investigation was focused on the inhabitants of four villages from two different ecological zones in the miombo woodlands. Information relating to the utilisation of forest-resources by local people, especially the potential use of NTFPs, was collected through individual interviews and group discussions as well as field observations and key interviews within and outside the research area.
People and environment
The villages
Kang´ata, Kwamagome, Kwediboma and Mafisa, located in the Handeni District,
Tanga Region, of Tanzania, all suffer from poor access. Most of the people belong
to the Zigua and Nguu ethnic groups, both of which basically depend on small-scale
agriculture for subsistence needs. At times, semi-nomadic cattle-rearing Maasai
also live in this area. They depend on milk and other cattle products. Because
their life style and diet differs from that of the Zigua/Nguu, their knowledge
of useful NTFPs from the miombo woodland also differs. All three ethnic groups
are similar, however, in that they consider woodlands to be primarily a resource
for agriculture and cattle grazing.
Subsistence, and even basic survival, in the area is entirely dependent on the availability of a diverse range of products from the woodlands: firewood is the only rural source of energy; timber, poles and branches are used for construction of houses, huts and enclosures; bark fibres provide ropes; and grass is used for roofing. Wood and bark are also used in the manufacture of furniture and simple modes of transport. Wildlife and edible mushrooms offer an important source of protein, particularly where cattle husbandry is not possible (e.g. in tsetse fly infested areas). During the recurrent hunger periods experienced in rural regions, food from wild plants often provides a last chance for survival. Medicinal plants may be the only medicines available for those without access to hospitals; they are also important for the health care of livestock.
Main use of NTFPs
During the study,
four woodland products (or groups of products) were identified jointly with
the participants. These products are used by different sections of the population,
and are seen as being suitable for sustainable use and possible marketing.
Honey is mainly used for subsistence consumption, generally in fermented form as local beer, which plays a major role in traditional culture. Honey is collected either through environmentally sound bee-keeping techniques with hives or through destructive honey hunting. Harvesting and processing of honey can create jobs and income. Intensification of skilled bee-keeping would not have any negative consequences for ecological or social functions.
Bark from selected tree species and bole forms is used in large amounts for different purposes by men and women.
Food from wild trees and bushes is used mainly during extreme dry seasons or to prepare certain local meals as a supplementary food. As their monetary value is very low, they are rarely sold and are available to fulfil the rural population's own needs. Compared to other regions of the country, only a small proportion of the potential edible plants are used and few storage techniques are known.
A wide range of edible mushrooms exists in the miombo, but consumption by local people is limited. Compared to several other miombo-rich countries, the potential of mushrooms is very underutilised.
Results
Participant observation
and information from local experts revealed discrepancies between the extent
of rural people's knowledge of the potential values of the forest and its products
and the extent of their actual use of forest resources, especially for the selected
products. Even though there is a large demand for income sources, NTFPs are
primarily used to meet household needs. More extensive marketing is possible
for some products and could be considered as an incentive for the conservation
of the woodlands. The acceptance levels for greater promotion of utilisation
and marketing of NTFPs varied between and within communities.
For subsistence economies, a greater use of NTFPs can be recommended, except for the case of bark splitting. Greater commercialisation, on the other hand, is only cautiously recommended because of the high risks. The establishment of collaborative processing and marketing would favour the commercial possibilities of all products investigated.
The key contribution of this study is the additional knowledge and information it provides about current utilisation of the miombo woodland and its social and ecological consequences. The discussions initiated among the villagers concerning the relative importance of current uses, the possibilities, and perspectives for sustainable miombo management can be seen as a step towards an increased appreciation of the resources of the woodlands.
Summary of the Dissertation: Karmann, M.: Untersuchungen zur nachhaltigen Miombowald-Nutzung am Beispiel von vier Dörfern im Handeni-Distrikt, Tansania. IV, 302 S. . Ill., Kt.; (dt.) Freiburg, Univ., Diss., 1998
Marion Karmann
Herdstr.4, 58332
Schwelm, Germany
Tel: +49 2332 913892
Email: Karmann@uni-freiburg.de