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Tropical Forest Research Network |
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ECOSYN - A RESEARCH PROJECT ON BIODIVERSITY AND MANAGEMENT OF WEST AFRICAN FORESTS
by L Poorter
The increasing global respect for diversity and
demand for timber and forest land requires a
careful management of the remaining forest
resources. For such management to occur,
basic information is needed about the
taxonomy, distribution and ecology of plant
species, distribution of forest types, and
patterns in biodiversity. This knowledge is
indispensable when answering questions like:
Which areas should be set aside for
conservation? Which areas have the highest
densities of commercial species? What are
the environmental requirements of different
tree species? And how to ensure that lianas
will not hamper the regeneration of logged
forests?
This baseline information is not readily
available, despite the fact that West African
forests are amongst the most intensively
studied in the tropics. Information is
inaccessible because it is either scattered
over different sources, confined to grey
literature, present in the form of raw data, or
simply has not been recorded. In addition, the
exchange of information and experiences
between neighbouring countries is often
constrained by differences in research
traditions and linguistic barriers.
What is ECOSYN?
The ECOSYN project aims to provide
botanical information in a tailor-made and
accessible way to policy makers, foresters
and researchers. It focuses on the high
forests of the Upper Guinea forest block,
stretching from Guinea to Ghana. ECOSYN
is a research collaboration project between
Wageningen University, the Netherlands, and
the University of Cocody, Côte d'Ivoire, in
partnership with SODEFOR, Côte d'Ivoire,
the Ghana Forest Service and Legon
University, Ghana. The project is funded for
a five-year period (1996-2000) by the CEC-DG8 Action Plan to support the management
of tropical forests (B7/5041).
The main ECOSYN products will be:
a field guide for all woody species
forest gradient map of the region
an ecological atlas of forests, large trees, and
rare plants
a book on the ecology and diversity of lianas
a forest management guide
a CD-ROM and Internet service to make the
products available
Field guide
At the herbaria in Wageningen and Oxford,
Carel Jongkind and William Hawthorne are
developing the field guide for forest plants.
The field guide is aimed at a wide audience,
from taxonomists who need up-to-date
references, to staff at forestry departments
who need to identify the plants in the field. It
includes all woody forest plants of the Upper
Guinea block (~ 1700 species) and contains
about 620 climbers and 1080 shrubs and
trees. To facilitate its use in the field, the field
guide focuses mainly on the vegetative
characteristics of plants (leaves, bark, latex,
etc.), and includes illustrations for all species.
Forest gradient map
At Wageningen University, Renaat van
Rompaey is developing a forest gradient map
for the forests in the region. West Africa is
characterised by a strong rainfall gradient,
ranging from 4000 mm at the Liberian coast
to 1200 mm at the forest-savannah
boundary. The vegetation changes along this
rainfall gradient, from wet evergreen forest in
the south-west to semi-deciduous forest in the
north. Van Rompaey is mapping the
continuous change in species composition of
the forest, using the technique of spatial
gradient analysis. This analysis is based on
forest inventory data for 250 sites in the
region.
Ecological atlas
The ecological atlas will show the spatial
distribution of forest species in the Upper
Guinea block. The atlas includes about 200
large tree species, and 300 rare or endemic
plant species. Data on species distribution are
derived from herbarium collections, botanical
inventories, and commercial timber
inventories. In addition, all forest areas are
described, and available botanical information
is specified. Based on this information forest
areas areas with a high degree of endemism
or biodiversity can be set aside for
conservation, and policies can be developed
for the protection of rare or endemic species.
GIS techniques are being used to analyse
which environmental factors (e.g. rainfall, dry
period, and soil conditions) determine the
spatial distribution of plant species. This
information will facilitate the selection of sites
for tree plantations and forest restoration in
general.
Ecology of lianas
At the University of Cocody, a team
supervised by Traoré Dossahoua focuses on
the biodiversity, ethnobotany and ecology of
lianas. Lianas form a conspicuous, but
understudied element of forest ecosystems.
Especially after forest exploitation, liana
blankets may develop, thus inhibiting further
tree regeneration. Inventories, experiments
and field trials provide insight into the role of
lianas in forest recovery after exploitation. In
collaboration with Frans Bongers, the results
will be summarized in a handbook on the
ecology and management of lianas.
CD-ROM and Internet site
Decision-makers, foresters, park managers
and researchers need quickly accessible and
tailor-made information for planning,
management and research. Given the
differences in background, interests, quantity
and detail of the information needed, a CD-ROM will be released to meet the diverse
demands of the user groups. The tree guides
can be easily browsed via clickable options
that will allow the user to access species
illustrations, and to view species distribution
maps at a regional, national, or local scale.
The same information will also be accessible
through Internet.
All ECOSYN products are scheduled to be
released in December 2000. The guides and
books will be distributed in French and
English. At the same time, the scientific
results will be disseminated through
international scientific journals. For an update
of information we refer to our website.
For further information or collaboration,
please contact:
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Dr Frans Bongers, Project leader ECOSYN
ECOSYN Office
P.O. Box 342
6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317478008, Fax: + 31 317478078
Email: office@ecosyn.pt.wau.nl
Http://www.spg.wau.nl/ecosyn
Mr Vincent Beligné,
ECOSYN Coordinator West Africa
BP 708, Yamoussoukro
Côte d'Ivoire
Tel and Fax: + 225 643720
Email:
vbeligne@globeaccess.net
PALEOFORGA -
THE PALAEOENVIRONMENTS OF THE FORESTS OF GABON
By J Maley
To manage Central African rain forests on a
long-term basis and to conserve their
biodiversity, particularly those of Gabon, an
historical perspective of the last millennia is
necessary, as many specialists predict a peak
in global warming during the 21st century. An
historical study of the rain forests of Gabon is
needed to determine the regional and global
climatic conditions, which (i) led to or
maintained the two major centres of African
biodiversity in Gabon, the 'Monts de Cristal'
and the 'Massif du Chaillu', with some satellite
micro-centres, and (ii) affected the forest in
past phases of forest extension and, by
contrast, the more-or-less rapid phases of
destruction.
To achieve this project sedimentary archives
were collected from three lakes in Gabon
situated along an west-east transect close to
the equator, progressing from the coastal
sector (a forest-savanna mosaic) to c. 300 km
inland. The bio- and geomarkers obtained
from the study of these lacustrine archives
(viz. pollen, diatoms, clay, organic matter,
stable isotopes, etc.) could allow a
reconstruction of the precise history of the
vegetation, palaeoenvironments and regional
palaeoclimates. The present-day extension of
a forest/savanna mosaic around two of the
studied lakes could provide a more precise
understanding of the controversial history of
these savannas in Gabon and the reasons for
their spread. A close collaboration with
archaeologists will help to provide new
evidence of possible anthropogenic impacts.
Persons interested in this project are invited
to contact:
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Jean MALEY
Directeur de Recherche IRD/ORSTOM
Dept. Paleoenvironnements et Palynologie
Université de Montpellier-2
34095 Montpellier
France
Email:
jmaley@isem.univ-montp2.fr
THE ECOFIT PROGRAM: PALAEOECOLOGY OF CENTRAL AFRICA AND SOUTH AMERICA
by B Riera
ECOFIT is a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional program started in 1992. Its goal
is the study of ECOlogy and paleo-ecology
of Inter Tropical Forests, mainly in Atlantic
Central Africa and in South America, during
the Holocene and in present times: pollen,
soil isotopic analysis, diatoms, fossil
charcoal are among the indicators which are
used to reconstruct the history of the
ecosystems and the species distribution. The
first years of the program showed evidence
of dry episodes with forests withdrawing c.
6000 BP in South America, and c. 2800 BP
in Africa: the lack of correlation in timing
between the continents is explained by
changes in the intensity of north Atlantic
trade winds. Such perturbations led to the
opening up of savannas, with some remnants
of rain forests in wet zones - these remnants
probably acting as refugia for forest species.
An important effort in modelling allows an
interpretation of the ecological data and an
understanding of the different time scales of
forest-savanna transgressions:
anemochorous (seeds spread by wind) tree
species are the first to spread widely after a
dry episode, while the repartition of slow-growing species with heavy seeds can take
thousands of years to recover: an example is
the palm Astrocaryum sciophilum in the
Guyana. Molecular analysis of this species
is underway to reconstruct the structure of
the refugial regions in greater detail.
Independent indications of the refugia are
searched for in the biodiversity of
undergrowth plants, and in the speciation of
small mammals (for which molecular
analysis is also a valuable tool). Human
impact, in the past and today, also has a very
important effect on the forest-savanna
interface: for instance, the accidental
introduction of Chromolaena odorata in Africa
has been shown to speed up forest
succession.
Contacts: Jacques Bonavallot
(bonvallo@bondy.ird.fr),
Marc A. Dubois
(mad@amoco.saclay.cea.fr) ,
Bernard Rièra
(riera@mnhn.fr)
, Dominique Schwartz
(schwartz@geographie.u-strasbg.fr)
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Bernard Rièra
GDR 489
4 avenue du Petit Château
91800 Brunoy
France
Tel: +33 1 60479200
Fax: +31 1 60465719
Http://www.mnhn.fr
BOTANICAL DIVERSITY AND LAND-USE IN
SOUTH CAMEROON
by B van Gemerden1,3, G S Neba1, P Ketner2
& H de Wilde3
Tropical moist forests are biologically the
richest ecosystems in the world. While the
significance, origin and characteristics of their
extreme diversity are only poorly understood,
these forests are subject to large-scale
degradation. The African rain forests are
generally poorer in species than those from
Amazonia and Malaysia, probably because of
the long history of human disturbance and
long dry era during the Pleistocene, leading to
extinction of many forest species. The number
of species per ha can still be considerable
however, up to 109 tree species > 10 cm dbh
on 1.56 ha (Richards 1973). Studies in Gabon
(Reitsma 1988) and in Cameroon (Gentry, in
Gartlan 1989) have shown that tree diversity
is some parts of the African rain forest is
comparable with the diversity in neotropical
rain forests. Gentry, for example, found 200
woody plant species on a 0.1-ha plot.
The moist evergreen forests of South
Cameroon form part of the lower Guineo-Congolian phytogeographic region. This
phytogeographic region is rich in species,
among them many endemics (80% of the
plant species, 36% of passerine birds, 45% in
terms of mammal diversity based on
ungulates and diurnal primates, with 58
species). The forests of south Cameroon and
neighbouring Gabon are also very rich in
plant species and local endemics and are
interpreted as Pleistocene refugia for forest
flora and fauna (Maley, 1989; Hamilton,
1983). This high diversity is attributed to the
high ecological diversity of the region. In
many parts of Cameroon timber exploitation,
shifting cultivation, hunting and gathering
change structure and species composition of
the rain forest. Ecosystem functioning might
be reduced if specific pollinators, dispersal
agents and predators are affected by these
changes. Likewise nutrient cycling and other
important ecosystem functions may be
influenced.
Uncontrolled logging and land conversion for
agriculture is leading to forest degradation
and deforestation. To counteract
unsustainable use of its forests, the
government of Cameroon accorded in 1992
the launching of the Tropenbos-Cameroon
Programme (TCP). The programme aims at
developing methods and strategies for
natural forest management directed at
sustainable production of timber and other
forests products and services. These
methods have to be ecologically sound,
socially acceptable and economically viable
(Foahom & Jonkers 1992). The programme
consists of 14 inter-related research projects
in the fields of forestry, ecology, economy,
social sciences, agronomy, hydrology, and
soil science. One of the three ecological
projects (Ecol.1) deals with plant biodiversity.
All research projects are conducted in the
Bipindi Akom II Lolodorf region (167,000
ha) in South Cameroon.
ECOL 1 project - Botanical diversity
The ECOL1 project of the TCP is funded by
the EU (contract n B7-6201/96/II/ VII/FOR)
and studies the diversity of higher plants and
ferns in relation to land use practices. Plants
are selected to study aspects of biodiversity
(which in itself is far too broad to be
addressed by a single project) based on the
notion that distribution of plants is related to
environmental conditions and is closely linked
to diversity patterns of other groups of
organisms. Furthermore, plants are relatively
easy to record and collect, enabling the
accumulation of sufficient data in a 3-yr
period (February 1998 February 2001).
The objectives of the ECOL1 project are:
(1) To describe the botanical diversity of the Bipindi Akom II Lolodorf region;
(2) To describe the effects of commercial timber exploitation and shifting cultivation on botanical diversity;
(3) To define and identify conservation priority areas; and
(4) To design management tools for
conservation of botanical diversity in
Cameroon.
The most important environmental conditions
in the area explaining vegetation patterns are
climate (altitude), soil conditions and past and
present land use. Based on a landscape
ecological study of the area (Van Gemerden
& Hazeu 1999) representative sites along the
climate/altitude and disturbance gradients
were identified. Plots of 625 m2 are laid down
in undisturbed forests (altitudes ranging from
40 1000 m above sea level), and in forests
that have been subjected to timber
exploitation (27, 14 and 5 yr after logging),
and in former shifting cultivation areas (50-60, 30-40, and 20 years after abandonment
of the fields). In these plots all trees, shrubs,
lianas, palms, herbs, and non-woody
climbers are recorded. All size classes are
included except for saplings of trees, shrubs
and lianas less than 50 cm in height because
of identification problems. Plant material is
collected of every species in the plots, except
for the readily and confidential identifiable
ones, and are sent for identification to the
National Herbarium of Cameroon and the
Herbarium Vadense (the Netherlands). A full
site description is made of every plot,
including geographical position, topography,
vegetation structure, soil and land use
history. A concise description is made of the
vegetation mosaic of which the plot is part.
After identification of plant material, the
sampled data will be analyzed to identify
plant communities with specific floristic
composition. The ecology of these
communities is studied with emphasis on the
recovery potential after disturbances such as
logging and slash and burn practices. These
recovery trends will give insight in the long-term effects on plant diversity caused by
these land use changes. The specific floristic
composition of the recovery stages will also
help to identify species that can be used as
indicators for sustainable forest
management. Of a limited number of plots
the horizontal and vertical structure of the
vegetation will be studied in detail. Vegetation
profiles will be drawn to exemplify the
structural development of the vegetation
along the gradients in relation to species
composition.
Identification of priority areas for
conservation is a prerequisite for sound land-use planning. Conservation efforts are likely
to be limited and should therefore be directed
at the most precious elements. The
conservation value of an area depends on the
geographical distribution of its species and
communities, and the threats to which they
are exposed (e.g. habitat destruction,
exploitation). Also the overall diversity and the
naturalness (absence of human induced
changes) will be taken into account. The
evaluation of forested land for conservation
purposes will result in a suitability map that
can be used for land use planning purposes.
By October 1999 a total of 119 plots (7.4 ha)
have been sampled during which nearly 9,000
specimens were collected. The first
identifications (5,300 ECOL1 collections and
1,700 collections made by other TCP
projects) have resulted in a checklist with
1138 species. Most species-rich families so
far are Rubiaceae (53 genera, 133 species),
Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae (36, 73),
Euphorbiaceae (35, 66), Apocynaceae (20,
49) and Annonaceae (22, 35). The genus
Diospyros (to which ebony belongs) is
represented in the area with 25 species. One
species (Dacryodes igaganga) has been
identified as new for Cameroon and
undoubtedly others will follow once the data
gets thoroughly checked.
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References:
Foahom B. & Jonkers WBJ. 1992. A programme for
Tropenbos research in Cameroon. The Tropenbos
Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Gartlan, S., 1989. La conservation des écosystèmes
forestiers du Cameroun. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
Maley, J. 1989. Late quaternary climate changes in the
African rain forest: forest refugia and the major role of
sea surface temperature variations. In: M.Leinen & M.
Sarthein (eds), Paleoclimatology and
Paleometeorology: modern and past patterns of global
atmospheric transport, pp. 585-614. Kluwer
Academic Publisher, Dordrecht.Reitsma, JM. 1988.
Végétation forestière du Gabon / Forest vegetation of
Gabon. Tropenbos Technical Series 1. The
Tropenbos Foundation, The Netherlands.
Van Gemerden BS & Hazeu GW. 1999. Landscape
ecological survey (1:100,000) of the Bipindi Akom II
Lolodorf region in Southwest Cameroon.
Tropenbos-Cameroon Documents 1. Tropenbos-Cameroon, Kribi, Cameroon
For further information on the ECOL 1
project, please contact:
1) Tropenbos-Cameroon Programme, B.P.
219, Kribi, Cameroon
(Email:
tropenboscameroon@compuserve.com]
2) Wageningen University, Environmental
Sciences, Tropical Nature Conservation and
Vertebrate Ecology Group, Bornsesteeg 69,
6708 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317 482691
Fax: +31 317 484845
Email:
pieter.ketner@staf.ton.wag-ur.nl
3) Wageningen University, Plant Taxonomy
Group, P.O.Box 8010, 6700 ED Wageningen,
The Netherlands
ECOLOGICAL AND BIODIVERSITY ISSUES FOR KORUP NATIONAL PARK, CAMEROON
by J Esser and K von Loebenstein
The Korup Project was created in 1986 by
WWF-UK and mainly supported by this
institution until 1993 and 1994 when the
German Agency for Technical Co-operation
(GTZ) and the European Community came in
as the main funding agencies respectively.
During the first phase of the project (until
about 1996) the main emphasis was put on
rural development within the support zone
starting from the assumption that a protected
area can, in the long run, not be successfully
managed and maintained in its natural state
unless the surrounding human population
receives some sort of benefit from
conservation activities. After a re-orientation
in 1996-97 more emphasis was given to
issues of park management and the activities
in the support zone were screened in such a
way that their objectives were clearly oriented
towards conservation; i.e. they had to
contribute directly or indirectly towards
conservation goals. The principal objective
of Korup Project is therefore to contribute to
the conservation of biodiversity of the project
area.
Korup National Park, which is the 'raison
d'être' for the Project, is an area of around
126'000 ha in the Guineo-Congolian tropical
ecological zone. The Park is situated in the
South West Province of Cameroon and
partially bordering directly to Nigeria. The
Korup region is predominantly of a primary
forest vegetation type. It is one of the most
biologically significant forests in Africa
belonging to the 'West Central endemic hot
spot' of biodiversity. Apart from the National
Park, the Korup Project Area includes three
Forest Reserves (around 154'000 ha) and
non-protected forest and communal land
(around 318'000 ha). The area covers a wide
range of different habitats from mangroves to
submontane forests of the Rumpi Hills with
altitudes up to 1500 m. Annual precipitation
can reach 5'500 mm, with a peak from August
to October and a single pronounced dry
season from December to February. The
Korup Project area contains an exceptional
diversity of life, including about 400 tree
species, 390 bird species and 17 species of
primates, many of these species being
endemic to the area. Some of them are
endangered, like the red-headed rockfowl
(Picathartes oreas) and the drill (Mandrillus
leucophaeus).
Although the demographic pressure is rather
low (< 7 inhabitants per km2) the biological
richness of the Korup area is threatened by a
range of human activities. Besides small
scale agricultural encroachment (slash-and-burn) and the use of forest products for
subsistence, uncontrolled exploitation of
wildlife and non-timber forest products is
drastically increasing mainly for commercial
purposes. Significant quantities are exploited
by, or sold to, the neighbouring Nigerians.
Two currently inactive timber concessions
(140'000 ha) can be reactivated at any
moment. A biomonitoring programme has
been started to survey the effect of
exploitation and hunting pressure in logged,
unlogged and prospected areas as well as
determining their biodiversity, habitat quality,
conservation value and natural regeneration
potential.
Within the Park there are six villages, one of
which was recently resettled outside of the
Park after a lengthy process of several years.
The project's policy towards resettlement is
presently being revised. The impact and
influence of villages inside the Park on its
ecology are too poorly understood. This will
be one major issue to be studied in the very
near future so that fundamental Project policy
on resettlement has a more substantial basis.
The National Park receives around 300
tourists per year, and the main reason for this
low number is probably the difficult access to
the Park especially during the rainy season.
Some camp sites with basic facilities are
available in the Park for tourists and visiting
scientists.
Since the 1970s the international scientific
community has been very interested in the
Park and its surrounding areas. Several
scientific papers have been published on the
forest. At present there are two long-term
vegetation studies. Since 1984, the Institute
of Geobotany of the University of Bern,
Switzerland, (formerly supported by the
University of Stirling, Scotland) has
investigated the phenology, recruitment,
pattern and dynamics of Caesalpiniaceae
tree species and their phosphorus cycling
with respect to ectomycorrhizal status. The
Smithsonian Institution, as part of their global
network, have recently established a 50-ha
plot for biodiversity monitoring and dynamics.
Beside these main investigations there have
been many other studies concerning specific
plant or animal species or species groups
such as large mammals including primates,
birds, reptiles, fishes, butterflies, ants,
nematodes, etc. all contributing to the basic
data base for the Park and its conservation
value.
In the past, relations between the Project and
scientific institutions/institutes were somewhat
neglected. The Project will now actively look
for partners for carrying out research
especially in those fields which are essential
for its success, related to its objectives and
are management oriented. The project will be
especially interested in long-term studies. To
a certain extent the Project will be able to give
logistic and technical support to interested
persons and institutions in accordance with
the national formal research requirements. As
far as possible project infrastructure inside the
Park, and at its headquarter in Mundemba,
will be offered to national and international
scientists on the basis of mutual contractual
agreements. Interested institutions are
therefore cordially invited to contact the
Project for further questions and inquiries.
The Project is mainly interested in applied
research, which should directly contribute to
the conservation goals. Not enough
knowledge is available on aspects such as
assessment of impacts of different activities in
the forest. To support sustainable
management of Korup Project Area, important
areas for further research could be, for
example:
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status of threatened forest species (flora and
fauna);
detailed studies on some indicator species
(flora and fauna);
extension of the Biomonitoring Programme;
development of a participatory monitoring
system (supported by GIS);
acquirement and interpretation of satellite
images;
vegetation and other maps for different zones
of land-use;
community-based inventories for sustainable
use of forest resources;
definition of limits to utilization of the main
forest products;
quantification of hunting pressure;
socio-economic impact studies
For further information, please contact:
Joachim Esser, Project Manager,
(jodesser@aol.com)
Karin v. Loebenstein, GTZ Officer,
(loebenstei@aol.com)
Korup Project, Mundemba, Cameroon
Postal address: WWF Korup Project, PB 2417,
Douala, Cameroon
Fax (Douala, WWF): 00237-432171; (GTZ Sat.fax,
Mundemba): 00873-68262-3960
Concerning on-going vegetation studies, please
contact Professor David Newbery, Geobotanisches
Institut, Universität Bern, Altenbergrain, CH-3013
Bern, Switzerland (Fax: +41 31 332 2059; Email:
newbery@sgi.unibe.ch.]
BALANCING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION WITH FOREST RESOURCE USE IN EXTREME HIGH MOUNTAIN ZONES: A CASE STUDY FROM PAKISTAN
By H Asbjørnsen, K Velle, Snorre J
Synnestvedt, and J S Thompson
Biodiversity in mountain regions
The conservation of biodiversity in
mountainous regions supporting high human
population pressures poses unique
challenges since the extreme climatic
conditions in mountain ecosystems often
reduce ecosystem resiliency and retard
ecosystem recovery processes. The Basho
Watershed, located in the Northern Areas
Region of Pakistan between 2,200 - 3,800
m.a.s.l., is characterized by extreme
temperatures ranging from +35C to -25C,
and a low annual precipitation of
approximately 200 mm. The natural pine
forests, dominated by Pinus wallichiana and
including a minor component of Juniperus
excelsa and Betulus, have been largely
deforested due to a long history of forest
exploitation by both local people and timber
concessionaires. Grazing by sheep and goats
has also been a significant land use activity in
the region.
A study was initiated in 1998 to investigate
the causes for poor natural forest
regeneration and the potential for facilitating
regeneration through reforestation and natural
forest management. This study is part of the
«High Altitude Integrated Natural Resource
Management Project» being implemented as
a collaborative effort between the Aga Khan
Rural Support Program (AKRSP) and the
Agricultural University of Norway (NLH), and
is funded by the Norwegian Development
Agency (NORAD). The major goal of the
forestry project is to improve the knowledge
about natural forest management and farm
forestry and their role in local people's
livelihood strategies. The project
encompasses the following specific
objectives:
Model current and future trends in forest cover
based on estimates of the standing biomass
and annual growth of the natural forests and
annual wood consumption by local villagers.
Evaluate natural forest regeneration in
relation to specific site factors (i.e., canopy
cover, litter depth, soil moisture, topography),
and human activities (lopping, livestock
grazing, wood harvesting).
Build the capacity of the local institutions to
conduct ecological research and strengthen
their knowledge base for management and
conservation activities.
Trends in forest cover and natural regeneration
A forest inventory conducted in 1998
indicated that standing forest biomass in the
Basho Watershed is approximately 35,000
tons, with an annual increment of less than
500 tons of air-dry woody biomass (Velle
1999). A preliminary estimation of local wood
consumption levels based on interviews with
local informants indicated that the eight
Basho villages harvest approximately 1,650
tons of air-dry wood annually from the
surrounding forests, suggesting that
consumption levels may be significantly
greater than the annual increment. If this
trend continues unabated, the landscape in
the Upper Basho Watershed may in the
future resemble the majority of the
surrounding villages in the region where
hillsides are conspicuously lacking in forest
cover.
A survey of seedling regeneration conducted
in 1999 indicated that the number of pine
seedlings regenerating in the landscape was
relatively low and highly scattered
(Synnestvedt and Thompson 1999). Pinus
wallichiana regeneration was correlated with
several physical and biological components
in the landscape. Seedlings were primarily
restricted to the forest edge or under the
forest canopy, and were negatively
associated with avalanche risk. The positive
association of seedlings with litter depth and
proximity to boulders or shrubs, especially in
open areas, potentially reflects the advantage
offered by these sites in the form of
protection from disturbance and/or
microclimate amelioration. The number of
regenerating J. excelsa seedlings was
significantly lower than for the pine,
suggesting that this species regenerates at
even slower rates. The interactions between
soil moisture, light availability, grazing, and
landscape structure in influencing patterns of
the regeneration of native tree species in this
region are currently being investigated as part
of the on-going project.
Biodiversity conservation in the Basho Watershed
Today, conservation of biodiversity in this human-dominated mountain region must focus on the remnant patches of forest and their surrounding landscape matrix. The stand structure of these forest remnants is characterized by the near absence of trees in the smaller dbh size classes, possibly due in part to selective harvesting of preferred size classes. Grazing pressures and adverse climatic conditions may also have contributed to the current situation. Since natural regeneration and stand renewal of pine ecosystems generally occurs following larger canopy-opening disturbances (i.e., wind-falls, landslides), the protection of establishing seedlings following such disturbances may be a critical factor within forest conservation approaches. Improving harvesting practices by directing extraction towards the larger trees from more densely stocked areas, and including a wider distributional range, may also facilitate natural regeneration processes.
Natural forest regeneration may also be promoted through both direct reforestation interventions and alternative land use practices that help reduce pressures on the natural forests. However, an important issue regarding the planting of pine seedlings for reforestation is the Pakistani law stating that all land supporting native coniferous tree species belongs to the government. This possibly serves as a disincentive to local people for planting trees. Negotiation efforts by AKRSP, IUCN, and the Pakistanti government may result in modifications of the legal situation in the future, which could serve to catalyze local initiatives in tree planting and sustainable forest management.
The potential production of fast growing tree
species (e.g., willows, acacias) and fruit trees
(e.g., apricot, mulberry) is high in the Basho
Watershed region once appropriate irrigation
channels have been established. Thus, the
establishment of agroforestry systems may
help to reduce pressures on the natural
forests. However, as more valuable
agroforestry products are often destined for
sale on the local markets, the final impact of
increasing agroforestry potential in the upper
Basho Watershed will depend on sufficient
amounts being used locally as a direct
replacement of natural forest products.
Better understanding of the ecological
mechanisms underlying natural regeneration
and forest renewal processes in this
landscape can provide a foundation for
balancing human land-use activities with
ecosystem sustainability. This knowledge
must be integrated with local land use
practices, organizational structures, tenure
systems, institutional relations, and gender
relations--all of which directly affect local
decisions over natural resource use.
Separate components of the AKRSP-NLH
collaborative project are assessing these
aspects, all of which will be integrated within
the management planning process by local
villages, organizations and institutions in the
region.
References
Synnestvedt, S J and J S Thompson. 1999. Factors
incluencing the regeneration of Pinus wallichiana and
Juniperus excelsa in the Basho forest, Baltistan,
Pakistan. Masters Thesis, Department of Forest
Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway, Ås,
Norway
Velle, K. 1999. Annual progress report: forest
management. In: Wisborg, P. and M A Raza (eds)
High Altitude Integrated Natural Resource
Management Annual Progress Report No. 8. AKRSP-NLH, December 1999, Oslo, Norway
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For more information, please contact:
Researchers:
Heidi Asbjørnsen, Assistant Professor
Agricultural University of Norway
Department of Forest Sciences
PO Box 5044
1432 Ås
Norway
Tel: +47 64 94 8896
Fax: +47 64 94 8890
Email:
heidi.asbjornsen@isf.nlh.no
Knut Velle, Director
Department of Natural Resources
Management
Drammen County, Norway
Email:
knut.velle@drammen.kommune.no
Project Coordinators:
Poul Wisborg, Senior Executive Officer
Agricultural University of Norway
Center for International Environment and
Development Studies
e-mail:
Poul.Wisborg@noragric.nlh.no
Mohammad Akbar Raza, Manager Agriculture
Aga Kahn Rural Support Program (AKRSP)
Regional Programme Office, Baltistan
P.O. Box 610, Satpara Road, Skardu
Northern Areas, Pakistan
By J G Poulsen
How to secure the livelihoods of local
indigenous people, while also maintaining
high levels of native, endemic biodiversity?
How to minimize the negative impacts of
coffee plantations on conservation of
biodiversity? How to alleviate or reduce the
impact of invasive species on the livelihoods
of people and the native, endemic
biodiversity? Are people who live deep in the
interior of a forest reserve more heavily
dependent on the forest resources than
people living along the outer boundaries (who
have additional income options)?
These are some of the questions, that we are
concerned with in our projects on the impact
of human activities on biodiversity
conservation. We investigate how human
activities and the associated disturbance (ie,
changes in the composition and structure of
the forest) and consequent fragmentation of
the forest landscape, affect how biodiversity
is distributed and moves around in the forest.
Specifically, here we report on our on-going
activities in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple
Wildlife Sanctuary, a 540-square-kilometre
reserve in the Western Ghats, in southern
India. (Similar, related studies have been
done in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, to
produce cross-country comparisons and
generalisable conclusions.)
In recent decades, human population growth
and increased consumption have led to a
soaring increase in human activities
throughout the Western Ghats, contributing
to rapid deforestation and degradation of
wildlife habitats (both within and outside
reserves) in a region, that is widely
recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot.
Besides the Western Ghats, the Himalayas is
the only other such area in the Indian
Subcontinent.
The specific human activities prevalent in
Biligiri Rangan Hills, include migration and
settlement, cattle grazing, development
projects, and the harvesting of non-timber
forest products.
Wildlife in the sanctuary and the surrounding
Biligiri Rangan Hills includes large and
endangered mammals such as tigers,
elephants, leopards and four-horned antelope,
as well as an estimated 250 species of birds
and 130 species of butterflies. A large and
increasing population of primarily indigenous
people known as Soligas live in and around
the sanctuary, and depend heavily on the
collection and sale of non-timber forest
products for their income. The sanctuary is
also a popular destination for tourists seeking
to view the abundant wildlife and visit the
ancient temple. Meanwhile, the forest
department and private enterprises have
established many development projects in the
area, such as coffee plantations.
We have looked at how extraction of non-timber forest products affects forest structure
and the regeneration and genetic diversity of
the trees from which those products are
derived. The results show that harvesting of
non-timber-forest-products, especially when
intensive, alters the composition and genetic
differentiation of trees, and also affects
seedling vigour and the extent of seed in
some species.
The current project design is more multi-dimensional and innovative compared to the
initial phases, which focused on genetic
diversity. First, we are examining the impacts
of human disturbance on biodiversity at three
levels: 1) within species and guilds
(communities of species), 2) at the landscape
level, and, 3) within the broader ecosystem.
Second, by integrating socio-economic with
ecological research efforts, we seek to
demonstrate how various socio-economic
factors contribute to changes in biodiversity
and influence overall forest use and
condition.
Within each of the four dominant vegetation
types in the area, gradients of human
disturbance have been identified based on
factors such as the number and population of
households in a Soliga settlement (podu), the
extent of area covered by a podu, places and
frequency of firewood collection, and
intensity of grazing around the settlements.
We compare the species composition of
birds, butterflies, trees, and shrubs, in areas
of different levels of disturbance. This
approach allows us - relatively quickly - to get
an understanding of how long-term forest
degradation will affect overall composition
and structure of the forest and therefore the
habitat quality for biodiversity in the area.
This approach is known as 'space for time
substitution' and is a cost-effective alternative
to studies that entail long-term monitoring of
changes in biodiversity.
For the landscape analysis, vegetation
changes obtained from satellite data are
being correlated with human settlements and
related activities in the sanctuary. The
ecosystem approach involves developing a
'disturbance gradient map' that reflects
various human pressures both inside and
outside the sanctuary, along with other
factors that may influence the extent of
disturbance in a given area, such as the
degree of land slope.
One question of interest in the current
fieldwork is how spatial patterns of non-timber-forest-products extraction and other
human-related activities vary according to
vegetation types and distance from the
boundaries of the forest reserve. The answer
has significant implications for biodiversity
protection. Thus, for the purposes of
biodiversity conservation it may be necessary
to provide incentives to decrease local
people's intense dependence on local
resources. Preliminary findings from the
Biligiri studies, however, show that the areas
of greatest disturbance to biodiversity are
actually along the boundaries of the
sanctuary, suggesting that pressures from
external sources are more significant than
those within.
The research team met in 1999 to integrate
and incorporate its latest findings and earlier
knowledge, with that of other scientists
working in the region, and to obtain a 'holistic'
model for the Bilgiri Rangan Temple
Sanctuary. This is the first step in the
development of a decision-making tool to aid
understanding of the likely social and
ecological consequences of various land use
options and conservation strategies.
Government officials, foresters, and
researchers (including NGOs) work hand-in-hand on this. Forest managers and
government officials are increasingly feeling
the pressure through public demand, and
ways of balancing a wide range of forest uses
and priorities, are critically needed.
The project is still on-going. The results
obtained to date are currently being written up
as several manuscripts, news-briefs, one
press release, and an overview article to be
submitted to Science.
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For further information, please contact:
John Grynderup Poulsen
Center for International Forestry Research
PO Box 6596, JKPWB
Jakarta 10065
Indonesia
Tel: +62 251 622 622
Fax: +62 251 622 100
Email:
j.poulsen@cgiar.org
PLANT SPECIES DIVERSITY AND THE UTILIZATION OF RATTAN GARDENS IN INDONESIA
by P Matius and A Reif
Biodiversity degradation has recently become
one of the major issues of the world. Many
human activities without ecological
consideration and internalization of ecological
costs have resulted in habitat disturbance,
and extinction of many species of flora and
fauna. Legal and illegal logging, mining,
monoculture industrial timber and non-timber
estates, settlements, fossil burning and
emissions from chemical industry cause
long-lasting ecological damage (Mackinnon
et al. 1997). Because of the increasing
awareness of these dangerous problems,
efforts are being made to conserve the
existing biodiversity of protected areas such
as national parks, botanical gardens and
forest reserves. However, success of these
efforts is limited, and until now were unable
to stop the processes of habitat destruction
and species extinction.
Habitat destruction and species extinction in
tropical rain forests are popular and critical
issues, e.g., the declaration of Rio de Janeiro
(1992). Logging activities, foundation of
monoculture timber estates and oil
plantations modify the economic livelihood of
the people, but also the ecological conditions
in East Kalimantan (Herkendell & Pretsch
1995; Mackinnon et al. 1997). This in turn
affects habits of people, reduces forest cover
and changes the structure of the landscape.
These changes in land-use also affect rattan
gardens.
External bodies, among them logging
companies, industrial timber estate and palm
oil companies have invaded the lands of local
communities. These activities have destroyed
the traditional life of local people, including
their rattan gardens. Some new working
places have been created by these
companies. The new schemes mainly employ
non-indigenous people. It can be expected
then, that the new land-uses will most likely
disappear after some years because of the
unawareness of the companies and new
settlers of the infertility of the soil, and the
abandoned early land-use techniques.
For effective sustainable land-use,
conservation of nature cannot be achieved
only by the segregation of distinct protected
areas. Necessary will be a combination of
reserves and sustainably used areas, these
latter having the potential to integrate the
demands of nature conservation. Such
sustainable land-use systems can already be
found in communities with experience and
long-lasting traditions. People have lived in
the tropical rain forest of Borneo for a long
time without causing significant ecological
damage. They have a traditional knowledge of
site requirements of different species and of
the risks of certain land-use practices, and
they can assess consequences of their
activities.
Traditional land-use techniques, including
rattan gardens, ensure the existence of local
communities and may contribute to
biodiversity conservation. Rattan gardens are
one of the traditional land-uses of tribes in
East and Central Kalimantan, the Benuaq,
Tunjung, Pasir, Kahayan, Luwangan, Dusun
and Manyan (Inoue & Lahjie 1990). Economic
aspects of rattan cultivation have been
investigated by Godoy (1990) and Godoy &
Feaw (1991). Traditional land-uses of the
Benuaq and Tunjung communities may serve
as an economic alternative, a basis for further
improvements of agroforestry techniques, and
also they may help to preserve the
biodiversity of the region (van Valkenburg
1997). Until now, very little was known about
the influence of these traditional practices
upon the species compositions of rattan
gardens maintained by native people
(Sardjono 1990; Mackinnon et al. 1997).
The aims of the research are to analyze the
vegetation composition and structure of
rattan gardens; to obtain an estimate of their
biodiversity and economic value; to gain
further knowledge of traditional plant
utilization; to analyse the livelihood and
economy of the people; and to discuss rural
development models. Rattan gardens must
be regarded as a Key System for
Participatory Biodiversity Conservation within
the Benuaq and Tunjung tribes. The
activities of the 'Sustainable Forest
Management' Project (SFMP) in Samarinda,
financed by GTZ, are currently focused on
the development of such sustainably
managed forests. Studies of the political
aspects of participatory biodiversity
conservation complete SFMP's work in the
field of social forestry. Data on biodiversity
within rattan gardens, their function to local
people, and the management techniques of
the local people can provide a base for an
effective and efficient biodiversity
conservation through local people
participation (van Valkenburg 1997).
The analysis of rattan gardens may become
a convincing example for conservation of
biodiversity program in participation with
local people. The Project can show the local
people the value and importance of their
rattan gardens, and the consequences of
losing them to non-adapted, unsustainable
land-use. The local authorities and
government must be convinced enough to
safeguard the gardens as an important part
of rural development.
The research program is part of cooperation
between TOEB and SFMP/GTZ (Indonesian
- German Technical Cooperation) program
Literature:
Deuscher Bundestag. (Hrsg) (1990). Schutz der
tropischen Waelder. Eine internationale
Schwerpunktaufgabe. 981 pp., Bonn.
Godoy R (1990). The economics of traditional rattan
cultivation. Agroforestry Systems 12: 163-172.
Godoy R & Feaw TC (1991) Agricultural diversification among smallholder rattan cultivators in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 12: 27-40.
Herkendell J & Pretsch J (eds) (1995). Die Waelder
der Erde. Bestandsaufnahme und Perspektiven.
Beck-Verlag, 340 pp., Muenchen.
Inoue M. & Lahjie A.M. (1990). Dynamics of swidden
agriculture in East Kalimantan. Agroforestry Systems
12: 269-284.
Kessler PJA, Sidiyasa K & Zainal A (1992). Checklist
for a tree flora of the Balikpapan - Samarinda area,
East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropenbos Technical
Series 8: 79 pp. Wageningen.
Kessler PJA & Sidiyasa K (1994). Trees of the
Balikpapan - Samarinda area, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia. A Manual to 280 selected Species.
Tropenbos Series 7: 446 pp. Wageningen.
Mackinnon K, Hatta G, Halim H. & Mangalik A. (1997).
The Ecology of Kalimantan. Oxford University Press,
802 pp., Oxford.
Sardjono MA (1990). Die Lembo-Kultur in
Ost-Kalimantan. Ein Modell für die Entwicklung
agroforstlicher Landnutzung in den Feuchttropen.
Dissertation, 214 pp., Universität Hamburg.
van Valkenburg JLCH (1997). Non-Timber Forest
Products of East Kalimantan. Potenials for
Sustainable Forest Use. Tropenbos Series 16: 202
pp. Leiden.
WILSON EO (1992) Ende der biologischen Vielfalt?
Spektrum Verlag, Heidelberg, 557 pp.
For further information please contact:
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Paulus Matius
Faculty of Forestry
Mulawarman University (UNMUL)
Center for Social Forestry (CSF)
Kampus Gunung Kelua
P.O.Box 1013
Samarinda 75123
East Kalimantan
Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Albert Reif
University of Freiburg
Institut of Silviculture, Vegetation Science
and Site Classification,
Tennenbacher Str. 4,
79085 Freiburg
Email:
areif@ruf.uni-freiburg.de
ON FARMERS AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:A CASE STUDY FROM WESTERN MEXICO
By P R W Gerritsen
Biodiversity Conservation and Biosphere Reserves
Biodiversity conservation has become a
major goal to reach at the dawning of the
new millennium (Wilson 1988). Amongst
others, protected area establishment is seen
as an adequate policy tool. Since the
seventies, a special type of protected areas
has been developed, called the 'biosphere
reserve'. Biosphere reserves aim at actively
involving farmers in biodiversity conservation
(Batisse 1986). However, interlocking
conservation activities in farmers' practices
has proved to be very difficult due to, above
all, conceptual ambiguities (Pimbert and
Pretty 1995).
Applied sociological research can be an
useful tool in finding new ways for
strengthening farmers' roles in biodiversity
conservation (cf. Chambers 1997), as
illustrated by the following case study from
western Mexico. Since 1993, the author has
been carrying out fieldwork in one of the
agrarian communities of the Sierra de
Manantlán biosphere reserve in western
Mexico. Improving the understanding of the
farmer-biodiversity link has been the main
objective of the research (cf. Gerritsen 1995).
Farming Styles and Resource Diversity
Farming styles and resource diversity were
the central theoretical concepts applied in the
study. Farming styles refer to specific
farming strategies, which are conscious
responses of farmers to specific ecological
and socio-economic conditions (van der Ploeg
1990). Through their actions, farmers
transform nature, and, consequently,
influence diversity in biological resources. In
turn, nature (and biodiversity) characteristics
determine the possibilities and limitations for
farming (Gerritsen forthcoming). In other
words, both farmers and nature are involved
in a process of co-production (or co-evolution). The one cannot be understood
without the other (van der Ploeg 1997).
Biodiversity generally refers to the number of
genes, species or ecosystems (Wilson 1988).
Often, biodiversity is an outcome of the
transformation of nature by farmers acting
within a wider political-economic context
(Gómez-Pompa and Kaus 1992). However,
the concept does not give attention to the
underlying ecological, socio-economic and
political processes. Therefore, the concept of
'resource diversity' was developed, which,
generally spoken, refers to diversity in
biological resources as understood and
distinguished by farmers. It also gives
attention to the socio-economic and political
processes that influence farmers' actions
(Gerritsen forthcoming). The concept of
resource diversity was applied during the
fieldwork.
On Resource Diversity in the Sierra de Manantlán
The research was carried out in the
indigenous community of Cuzalapa in the
Sierra de Manantlán biosphere reserve, where
resource diversity was investigated at the
landscape level. The results indicated that
Cuzalapa farmers distinguish several land-use and vegetation types in their landscape.
Their classification system is based upon
existing vegetation types, dominant tree
species and management practices applied
in the past and present. The different land-use and vegetation types are not isolated
from each other; on the contrary, close
relationships exist between them.
Successional patterns in the vegetation are
also recognized and maintained by farmers
through their farming practices.
Consequently, a heterogeneous cultural
landscape comes to light (cf. Phillips
1995),and resource diversity, as understood
by Cuzalapa farmers, emerges. Resource
diversity is recognized not only in space, but
also in time, and clear boundaries are often
absent. In fact, farmers perform a highly
sophisticated dance with nature through time
and space, providing farm families not only
with desired products and services, but also
ensuring the reproduction of the
environment's natural resources.
Nowadays, two processes have affected
resource diversity as described above in
Cuzalapa. On one hand, cattle production
has grown in importance, largely due to the
unfavourable economic situation of maize
cultivation. Consequently, several land-use
and vegetation types are converted into
pastureland, leading to a homogenization of
the landscape. On the other hand, the
zoning regulation of the reserve has severely
restricted farmers' actions, especially
regarding certain vegetation types. This has
lead to using certain land-use activities and
vegetation types more intensively than
others, leading in some cases to land and
natural resource degradation.
From Biodiversity Conservation towards
the Management of Resource Diversity
In the foregoing a sociological approach for
understanding farmers in biosphere reserves
was presented. The case of Cuzalapa
illustrates that the concept of resource
diversity is useful, as it provides insight into
farmers' perceptions regarding natural
resources. It also sheds light on the social
dynamics underlying the management of the
natural resources. Although many questions
are still pending, a general policy
recommendation can presently be made.
In those protected areas opting for co-management, such as biosphere reserves,
resource diversity can be a helpful tool in
discussions between farmers and
conservationists when addressing issues of
biodiversity conservation. While the latter puts
emphasis on the 'ecological side' of natural
resource management, the former looks more
at the 'social side'. Using both concepts
complementarily allows for the establishment
of an explicit interfaces for «negotiating»
sustainable land-use. It also permits
«tailoring» intervention approaches to the
specific context of farming communities
(Borrini-Feyerabend, 1996; cf. Gerritsen
1998). However, within conservation projects
farmers are all too often conceived of as
functional partners who have to be 'made
aware' of the importance of biodiversity
conservation. However, co-management is
possible only within a «new» conservation
professionalism (Chambers, 1997), which,
among other requirements, includes
accepting the existence of multiple resource
diversities as part of conservation strategies.
Bibliography
Batisse, M. (1986) 'Developing and focusing the
biosphere reserve.' Nature and Resources Vol. 22 (3),
July-September 1986: 1-10.
Borrini-Feyerabend,G. (1996) Collaborative
Management of protected areas: tailoring the approach
to the context. Gland (Switzerland): IUCN: Issues in
Social Policy.
Chambers, R. (1997) Whose reality counts? Putting
the first last. London: Intermediate Technology
Publications.
Gerritsen, P.R.W. (1995) Styles of Farming and
forestry. The case of the Mexican community of
Cuzalapa. Wageningen: Circle for Rural European
Studies, Agricultural University Wageningen, The
Netherlands. Wageningen Studies on Heterogeneity
and Relocalization 1.
Gerritsen, P.R.W. (1998) 'Community development,
natural resource management and biodiversity
conservation in the Sierra de Manantlán biosphere
reserve, Mexico.' Community Development Journal,
Vol. 33, No.4, October 1998: 314-324.
Gerritsen, P.R.W. (in process) Diverisity at stake. On
co-production, farming styles and resource diversity.
Wageningen: Wageningen University and Research
Centre, Subdepartment of Rural
Sociology/Subdepartment of Forestry.
Gómez-Pompa, A. and A. Kaus (1992) 'Taming the
wilderness myth' BioScience 42: 271-279.
Philips, A. (1995) The nature of domestic landscapes,
an IUCN perspective. Paper presented at the
UNESCO regional thematic study meeting of the
Asian rice culture and its terraced landscapes.
Manila, the Phillipines, March, 28-April 4, 1995.
Pimbert, M.P. and J.N. Pretty (1995) Parks, people
and professionals. Putting "participation" into
protected area management. Geneva: United Nations
Research Institute for Social Development. UNRISD
Discussion Paper 57.
Ploeg, J.D. van der (1994) 'Styles of Farming: an
introductory note on concepts and methodology'. Pp.
7-30 In: Ploeg, J.D. van der and A. Long (eds)
(1994) Born From Within. Practice and Perspective of
Endogenous Rural Development. Assen: Van
Gorcum.
Ploeg, J.D. van der (1997) 'On rurality, rural
development and rural sociology.' Pp. 39-73 In:
Haan, H. de and N. Long (eds.) (1997) Images and
realities of rural life. Wageningen perspectives on
rural transformations. Assen: Van Gorcum publisher.
Wilson, E.O. (ed.) (1988) Biodiversity. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.
For more information, please contact:
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Peter R.W. Gerritsen
Rural Sociologist/Social Forester
Departamento de Ecología y Recursos
Naturales
Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur
Universidad de Guadalajara
Apartado Postal 64
48900 Autlán, Jal.
Mexico
Tel/Fax: +338 11165/11425
Email:
pgerritsen@cucsur.udg.mx
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO FOREST BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION, ASSESSMENT AND USE
by O Phillips
The purpose of this project, located at Madre
de Dios (Amazonian Peru) is to develop an
integrated, multidisciplinary, transferable
approach to forest biodiversity conservation,
assessment and use. The target institutions
are: (a) policy-makers in the Ministerio de
Agricultura in Puerto Maldonado (local) and
Lima (national); (b) reporting GOs on
implementation of Biodiversity Convention; (c)
research institutions: Instituto de
Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana
(Puerto Maldonado, Iquitos), UNSAAC
(Cusco); (d) local NGO community; (e)
policy-makers and programme managers in
international organizations.
Field research in the first 2 years involved:
(1) The use of satellite images to direct sampling effort to span the natural environmental variation. An enhanced mosaic of Landsat images serves as a base-map onto which existing inventory sites are mapped, and as a heuristic device to develop an efficient sampling strategy. Fieldwork locations are selected to cover the forest spectral diversity represented in the image.
(2) Replication of 2-m x 500-m tree transects at all sites (10 sites, 100 transects).
(3) Allocation of half of the sampling effort to forest sites expected to be impacted by timber and non-timber forest product (TNTFP) harvesting.
(4) Overlay of tree transects with 10-m x 500-m transects to census the population density and structure of the most important economic species.
(5) Sampling of soil chemical and physical properties in each tree transect.
(6) Conducting socio-economic surveys in
adjacent communities to quantify the impact
of TNTFP harvesting on biodiversity and to
assess community perceptions of harvesting
impacts, land-use suitability, and specific
ways to improve sustainability in each major
regional forest-type.
Analysis to be carried out in the third year will
include: (1) Modelling floristic differences as
a function of soil, spectral properties, and
inter-site distance. (2) Comparing useful
species' populations in harvested and intact
sites in similar vegetation, to determine
thresholds of harvest intensity above which
useful species cannot renew themselves.
The project will thus establish suitability of
different forest types for resource extraction.
(3) Ground-truthing of Landsat images in
terms of forest types, economic species, and
land-use capability. GIS-based maps will
serve immediate policy purposes. Reliable
maps of forest ecosystems and the spatial
distribution of biodiversity (conservation
significance), economic species (forest
production potential) and soils (agricultural
potential) will be available to policy makers
and stakeholders for the first time.
Funded by U.K. DFID January 1998 - December 2000.
Collaborators: Herbario Vargas, Universidad Nacional
San Antonio Abad del Cusco (UNSAAC), Cusco,
Peru; and Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía
Peruana (IIAP), Puerto Maldonado, Madre de Dios,
Peru.
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For further information please contact:
Dr Oliver Phillips
Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation
School of Geography
University of Leeds
Leeds LS2 9JT
United Kingdom
Fax. +44 1132 333308
Email:
oliverp@geog.leeds.ac.uk
Http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/staff/o.phillips
BIODIVERSITY MAPPING PROJECT BONN (BIOMAPS)
by W Barthlott & J Mutke
The BIOMAPS project (Biodiversity Mapping
for Protection and Sustainable Use of Natural
Resources) at the University of Bonn,
Germany, in co-operation with the German
Remote Sensing Data Centre aims at
mapping and analysing spatial patterns of
plant diversity on continental to global scales.
One of the first results was a world map of
species numbers of vascular plants
(
http://www.botanik.uni-bonn.de/system/phytodiv.htm
) based on close to 1400 sources
from the literature.
The main focus of the current work is the
analysis of the spatial distribution of different
qualitative aspects of biodiversity such as
phylogenetic diversity, endemism, or the
influence of neophytes. Of high importance
are also the interdependencies of biological
diversity and geodiversity. All maxima in
species numbers in our world map of
phytodiversity are located in orographically
and climatically highly structured (geodiverse)
areas. First spatial models of vascular plant
species numbers primarily based on climatic
parameters show high correlation to
observed species richness.
In addition, the dependence of different
aspects of biological diversity on spatial scale
are analysed. Especially the comparison of
the exceptional alpha-diversity of the
Amazonian lowland rain forest on the one
hand with the outstanding gamma-diversity
of the highly geodiverse northern Andes on
the other hand shows that there is not a one
and only 'true' biodiversity map. One has
always to recognise the spatial scale which is
used. This is also true for the already
mentioned different qualitative aspects of
biodiversity. One example may be the
contrast of the high family richness of
vascular plants in the SE part of the USA
compared to the highest values of endemism
and the portion of rare species in the western
part of the country.
Presently, we are working on a complete
revision and expansion of the databases and
the GIS for a new version of the world map of
phytodiversity and more detailed analyses
especially in the Neotropics and Africa.
More information can be obtained at:
http://www.botanik.uni-bonn.de/system/biomaps.htm
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For further information, please contact:
Wilhelm Barthlott
(barthlott@uni-bonn.de)
and Jens Mutke
(Jens.Mutke@uni-bonn.de)
Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten
Meckenheimer Allee 170
53115 Bonn
Germany
Tel: +49 228732125, Fax: +49 228733120
THE MIOMBO WOODLAND SUBCLIMAX OF THE NORTHERN REGION OF ZIMBABWE : A STUDY OF ITS MAJOR PLANT SPECIES AND THEIR POTENTIAL USE AS BIO-INDICATOR
by W Kanschik
This PhD thesis was published by the Faculty
of Agriculture, International Rural
Development and Environmental Protection in
Der Tropenlandwirt, Beiheft Nr. 67. The
objectives of the study are: (1) selection of a
representative sample of site types with their
vascular plant species sequences and the
respective prevailing environmental factors,
(2) interpretation of individual species
behaviour in relation to single environmental
factors and (3) identification of species
indicator scores inferred from the close
relationship 'species-environment'.
Results of an extensive vegetation survey of 214 miombo woodland sites are reported, encompassing the full spectrum of site types in the Northern region of Zimbabwe. The study area comprises a surface of 19,000 km². At each sample site the vascular species (altogether 640) were recorded, as well as 38 environmental variables (climatic, topographic, edaphic factors; geology, vegetation features, exploitation and land tenure). The resulting data set was analysed in two steps: by descriptive-numerical and multivariate-statistical methods.
In the descriptive-numerical part the sites were grouped according to the five major geological formations and the three altitudinal categories high-, middle- and lowveld. The dissimilarity of the resulting plant species sequences, tested by the Jaccard-Similarity-Index, are caused by the principle environmental factors: altitude, rainfall and soil texture and, to a minor extent by geological differences (igneous rocks sediments).
In the second step the multi-dimensional data
set was reduced to a two-dimensional space,
capturing the underlying species structure by
applying the algorithm of Canonical
Correspondence Analysis (CCA),
complemented by the 'Monte Carlo
Permutation Test'. As a result, those
environmental variables are crystallised
which are significantly controlling the species
composition of the area: altitude,
precipitation and soil texture - synthesised to
a gradient representing the available soil
moisture conditions. Simultaneously the
regression curves of each species against
this gradient is determined. In the resulting
'species-site matrix' the soil moisture
conditions are depicted as a diagonal running
from the upper left corner (humid conditions)
down to the lower right (dry conditions). The
soil moisture gradient is subsequently
subdivided into seven moisture classes. The
weighted averages of the species scores
(based on their moisture class) of the relevés
permits ranking the sites due to soil moisture
availability, thereby assessing the quality of
each site.
Normally, the terrestrial plant layer (grass,
herbs) is governed by local influences
causing a varied mosaic-like distribution
pattern differentiating the diverse site entities.
The trees, however, exploiting different soil
horizons display a more extended ecological
niche and are governed mainly by regional
environmental conditions. Due to this fact the
described methodology, including all plants,
is especially adapted to assess the ecological
or sociological optima and their amplitude of
the trees growing in the miombo woodlands.
Identifying the significant environmental
variables and determining the regression
curves of each species against those the
method makes it possible to monitor the
effect on the species composition in case of
future climatic changes as well as of actual
intervention by man.
Summarising, the method offers the following
possibilities: sampling the biodiversity of the
dry miombo, assessing the sociological
(ecological) optimum of the single plants and
monitoring of actual or future changes.
Keywords: bio-indication; dry miombo
woodlands; ordination (CCA); species ecology
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For further information please contact:
Dr Wolfgang Kanschik
Bleichstr. 9
33378 Rheda-Wiedenbrück
Germany
Fax + 49 5242 401176
Email:
wkanschik@t-online.de
EPIPHYTES AND THEIR ROLE FOR
BIODIVERSITY OF TROPICAL FORESTS
Worldwide approximately 10% of all higher
plant species are epiphytes: plants living on
other plants without drawing water or
nutrients from their living tissues. In the
tropics, epiphytic plants mainly orchids,
bromeliads and Araceae are a characteristic
element of the vegetation. In some montane
rain forests epiphytic species represent up to
50 % of the local flora. The main focus of our
work is to answer the following question:
What is the contribution of epiphyte diversity
to the high diversity of the tropics and which
factors determine epiphyte species richness?
During the last decade the Botanical Institute
of the University of Bonn has been carrying
out various field studies and theoretical
investigations based on detailed evaluation of
floras and inventories of epiphytes. The
studies generally enclose all systematic
groups of epiphytic flora with special focus on
vascular epiphytes. Our aim is to contribute to
the relatively scarce knowledge on the
structure and the dynamics of epiphytic plant
communities of mainly neotropical study sites
in comparison to the terrestrial vegetation.
Previous studies in Bolivia and Ecuador and
in various forest types in Ruanda and Zaïre
were realized. An analysis of flora literature
with regard to Peru was published.
Furthermore our project group participates in
the Surumoni crane project of the Austrian
Academy of Science studying the canopy of
a lowland rain forest in Southern Venezuela.
The mobile crane of the Surumoni project
allowed for the first time ever a complete
inventory and exact spatial distribution data
for all the epiphytes encountered in a 1.5-ha
tropical lowland rain forest plot. Our studies
comprise also a montane rain forest in the
Venezuelan Andes, where epiphytic
vegetation of an undisturbed and a disturbed
forest was compared.
For each site various questions have to be
answered: (1) How many epiphyte species
are there, how is the epiphytic plant
community composed? (2) What factors
determine species richness and community
structure of epiphytes? (3) How do these
communities change over time?
Based on extensive investigations on
vascular epiphytes in the last 20 yr in general
and on epiphytic vegetation in four tropical
mountain forest sites (Sehuencas, Bolivia;
Otonga and Río Guajalito, Ecuador; La
Carbonera, Venezuela) and the Amazonian
lowland forest crane plot at Río Surumoni
(Venezuela) in particular, the systematic
composition, vertical and horizontal
distributional patterns of epiphytes were
analyzed. The differences in epiphyte
diversities of mountain forests and lowland
forests can be explained on the basis of
different distributional patterns: in mountain
forests, the alpha diversity of epiphytes is
high and species turnover between sites
separated by a small geographical distance
is considerable. In contrast, alpha diversity of
epiphytes in the Amazonian lowlands is low,
but the number of epiphyte species increases
gradually with area. Although lowland forests
cover vast areas, the overall epiphyte species
richness is not higher than that of the wet
Andean mountain forests, which occupy a far
smaller land surface.
Funding of projects: Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (Venezuela); Deutsche
Volkswagenstiftung (Ecuador); Deutscher
Akademischer Austauschdienst (Rwanda/Zaire,
Bolivia)
For further information please visit:
http://www.botanik.uni-bonn.de/system/epiphyte.htm
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Contact: Wilhelm Barthlott
(barthlott@uni-bonn.de)
, Jürgen Nieder
(jnieder@uni-bonn.de)
, Viviane Schmit-Neuerburg
(schmit-neuerburg@uni-bonn.de)
Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten
Meckenheimer Allee 170
53115 Bonn
Germany
THE UTRECHT UNIVERSITY HERBARIUM AND BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH
by P J M Maas and colleagues
The Herbarium of Utrecht University, member
of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands,
comprises more than 800,000 herbarium
specimens and 40,000 wood samples, the
majority from tropical America. The research
aims at generation of essential knowledge
and data for identification of neotropical plant
taxa, understanding of development of
biodiversity in relation to the ecosystems in
the past and present, and establishment of
the phylogenetic history of plant taxa under
study. The projects participate in the National
Research School Biodiversity. To achieve
this purpose, two projects have been initiated:
1. The Annonaceae Project
Activities in this project started in 1984 and
centre around four major topics:
Monographic-phylogenetic research of
selected genera; classification of the family
by analysis of morphological characters, and
study of chloroplast-DNA; compilation and
updating of bibliographical and
nomenclatural data; and dissemination of
knowledge through CD-ROMs and Internet.
The Annonaceae represent a large
pantropical family of approximately 120
genera with well over 2,500 species. About
900 taxa are found in the neotropics. The
family comprises trees, shrubs, and lianas,
which are found in almost all vegetation
types in the neotropics.
Modern plant systematics is unthinkable
without the input of other subdisciplines.
Therefore, various subdisciplines, such as
morphology, flower biology, leaf and wood
anatomy, and DNA techniques are employed.
Furthermore, the Annonaceae Project
cooperates with over 10 partners of botanical
institutes in Brazil, England, France,
Germany, The Netherlands, etc., covering
various disciplines.
All data from various subdisciplines for a
given taxon are collected within the same
time-span and combined in one publication
series. Consequently, a monographic
treatment is presented incorporating as much
information as is possible, as well as the
most likely phylogenetic analysis of the
taxon. The monographs are mainly published
within the framework of the UNESCO project
Flora Neotropica. Furthermore,
morphological characters (fruit and seed)
have been subjected to numerical analysis
and published separately. At present, a study
of chloroplast-DNA is being carried out in
order to reveal evolutionary trends within the
family. An index to all neotropical species
and infraspecific taxa has been published
(1994). The third version of the bibliography
(1993) has been kept up to date and will be
published as an interactive database (see
below).
In 1996, ETI and the Utrecht Herbarium
started to cooperate in a three year program
on the Annonaceae. This resulted in the
production of two CD-ROMs at the end of
1999. One CD-ROM deals with all genera of
Annonaceae in the world. The other focuses
on the neotropical genera, including the
species of 17 revised genera. Both CD-ROMs
contain taxonomic databases, illustrations,
interactive identification and biogeographical
tools, a literature database, and an illustrated
glossary. The Annonaceae Newsletter is
issued at irregular intervals. Every 2-3 yr an
Annonaceae Workshop is organised by one of
the participating institutes in order to discuss
the various research items with each other. In
October/November 2000 a workshop will be
organised by the Utrecht Herbarium.
2. The Flora of the Guianas Project
The activities in this project are: treatments of
families by the Utrecht staff; editing of
manuscripts submitted by others;
preparations of wood anatomical chapters for
particular families; and setting-up databases
on literature and plant collectors.
The Flora of the Guianas Project covers the
geographical area of Guyana, Suriname, and
French Guiana. This area forms a natural unit
within the Guianan Flora Province, extending
into Venezuela and Brazil. It covers various
vegetation types, such as mangroves, lowland
rain forests, savannas, and montane forests.
This area is well known for its high
biodiversity, with over 8,000 species of
flowering plants The project, which started
in 1984, aims at publishing treatments of
families of phanerograms and cryptogams
occurring in the region. It attempts to describe
the plant diversity and to make this knowledge
available not only to taxonomists, but also for
practical use (foresters, politicians,
conservationists, and for education). Studies
by Utrecht staff members on several families
are in progress. Wood anatomy forms an
integrated part of the treatments of particular
families.
The Flora of the Guianas Project is a
cooperative project of departments or
institutions, focusing on systematic botany,
of Berlin, Cayenne, Georgetown, Kew, New
York, Paramaribo, Paris, Utrecht, and
Washington. The Editorial Office, in charge
of publication of the Flora of the Guianas,
and related volumes and papers, is housed at
Utrecht University. The Flora of the Guianas
Newsletter is issued at irregular intervals.
Every 2 yr a Workshop is organised by one
of the participants. In 2000 a Workshop will
be organised by the Utrecht Herbarium.
The Tropenbos Foundation
Utrecht University takes part in the Guyana
research program of the Tropenbos
Foundation. Research is aimed at
conservation and sustainable management of
tropical lowland rain forest. The participation
of the Utrecht Herbarium is connected with
the type of research which requires the
combination of both theoretical knowledge of
botanical diversity and extensive field
experience. In this framework a study on
botanical biodiversity with emphasis on
lianas has been carried out in Guyana. A
second project is focusing on the use of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) in the North-West District of Guyana. Ethnobotanical
research has been carried out among three
Amerindian tribes, Both commercial NTFP
and plants used for subsistence purposes
have been taken into account. A third
ongoing project concerns biodiversity studies
on the direct impact of logging on species
composition in Central Guyana.
Every year the course 'Neotropical Flora' is
organised in Utrecht by the herbarium staff.
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Contact:
University of Utrecht Herbarium,
Heidelberglaan 2, 3584 CS
Utrecht, Netherlands
Tel: +31 30 2531747
Fax: +31 30 2518061
Email :
P.J.M.Maas@biol.ruu.nl
Http://www.biol.ruu.nl/~biologie/
NATURAL RESOURCE FUNCTIONS, BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL PEATLANDS
by J Rieley
Tropical peatlands, especially those situated
in lowland situations are a major target for
land conversion and development. In their
natural state these are covered in diverse rain
forest and they perform a wide range of
natural resource functions. There is little
published information on these values and
attributes or how tropical peatlands should be
managed 'sustainably'. Peatlands globally
have acquired a high profile in recent years
owing to their pivotal role in carbon balance
processes and this is particularly so in
Southeast Asia where major land conversion
projects and fire are threatening this resource.
The over riding rationale of this project
(Contract No: ERBIC18-CT98-0260) that is
funded by the EU INCO-DC Programme
under Framework 4 is to undertake a
comprehensive evaluation (including
biodiversity, ecological, environmental and
socio-economic attributes) of tropical
peatlands based upon studies at different
spatial scales. At the largest scale, mapping
will enable the role of undisturbed and
developed tropical peat of Southeast Asia for
carbon dioxide storage and emission to be
determined. Medium scale approaches will
focus on the Indonesian Province of Central
Kalimantan (Borneo) where there is a major
Government sponsored impetus for peatland
development. Local studies will concentrate
upon several adjacent peat-covered
catchments within the latter. This scalar
approach is essential in order to encompass
the ecological heterogeneity and range of
sector developments within tropical peatland
systems. Data obtained in this study will be
used to prepare guidelines for the sustainable
management of tropical peatlands based
upon a model ecohydrological catchment
plan.
The study design incorporates environmental
audit and assessment, involving remote
sensing and extensive ground checking. The
current status of the peatland resource will be
established and the impacts upon it
determined, prior to preparing guidelines for
its sustainable management. Large-scale
satellite survey will apply sophisticated
techniques of remote sensing, including the
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellites
ERS-1/2 (EU) and JERS-1 (Japan) that can
penetrate the cloud which frequently covers
this part of Kalimantan.
The results of remotely sensed vegetation,
peat and land-use mapping will be linked to
extensive field surveys, ecological studies
and laboratory analyses. Natural, secondary,
developed and degraded peat swamp forest
(PSF) will be investigated. Forest sub-types
and structure will be documented, compared
and evaluated, together with determination of
peatland area, peat thickness, geochemistry,
hydrology and hydrochemistry, tree biomass
and nutrient dynamics in order to understand
the ecological processes and natural
resource functions of tropical peatland and
the impact of development upon these.
Special emphasis will be placed upon the
socio-economic values of both developed
and undeveloped PSF and how these can be
catered for within strategies for
environmentally sustainable management.
This project involves the Universities of
Nottingham and Leicester, UK, Helsinki,
Finland and Kalteng Consultants, Germany,
in collaboration with the Universities of
Palangka Raya, Gadjah Mada and Sriwijaya
in Indonesia and Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Around thirty scientists and associated
researchers are involved with the main
emphasis of the research focused in
Peninsular Malaysia and Central Kalimantan,
Indonesia. Training of developing country
research scientists and assistants has a high
priority and several young scientists in
Malaysia and Indonesia are registered for
Ph.D. and masters postgraduate programmes
in Europe and SE Asia.
To facilitate the collaborative research a field
station has been constructed on the edge of
pristine peat swamp forest in the upper
catchment of Sungai Sebangau in Central
Kalimantan and, in addition, an International
Centre for Co-operation in Sustainable
Development of Tropical Peatland
(CIMTROP) has been established at the
University of Palangka Raya. The latter
incorporates office and laboratory facilities for
both local and visiting researchers.
Data are now becoming available from the
project on biodiversity, ecological functions,
natural resource values of and impacts of
development on tropical peatland. These
tasks have been aided by state-of-the-art
remote sensing and data will be transferred to
an interactive GIS to promote ecological
landscape planning for large peat covered
catchments in the tropical zone using Central
Kalimantan as a model.
Further information about this project and its
component tasks can be obtained from the
Project Web Site at:
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http://www.geog.nottingham.ac.uk/~rieley/EUTROP/Eutrophome.html
or by contacting:
Dr. Jack Rieley
Project Co-ordinator
Email:
Jack.Rieley@nottingham.ac.uk
SOFT 95 PROGRAM N1 : IMPACT OF SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES ON TREE SPECIES DIVERSITY IN FRENCH GUIANA
by J Molino
As part of the French Environment Ministry's
research program SOFT (SOls et Forêts
Tropicaux), a study led by IRD (Research
Institute for the Development, ex-ORSTOM)
is evaluating the impact of logging and
experimental silvicultural practices on local
tree species diversity in the French Guianan
forest. This research is conducted in the
subcoastal equatorial rain forest near
Sinnamary, partly on IRD's St. Elie trail
research station (PSE), and partly on
CIRAD-Forêt's station at Paracou, where
three different forestry practices have been
tested since 1986 on a set of twelve 6.25-ha
plots (including three unlogged references).
For our SOFT program, we selected a 1-ha
plot in a pristine forest stand at PSE, and ten
0.5-ha plots at Paracou, among which three
remain unlogged.
Since the beginning of this study in 1995,
more than 20,000 trees with a DBH > 2 cm
(stem diameter at breast height) have been
censused on these 6 ha, identified to species
or morphospecies, mapped, permanently
labelled and their DBH measured. Six
hundred and sixteen species in 235 genera
and 64 families were identified. Inventory and
herbarium data are organized in a database
to facilitate ecological and statistical analyses.
Local impact of forestry practices is evaluated
through the number and size of logged/dead
trees on small areas (25, 100-m² or more) at
the time of exploitation. These values and
their variations are compared with the
fluctuations of the measured tree species
diversity, both within each plot and between
the different levels of intensity of
logging/silvicultural practice.
This program, whose results will be published
soon, is for the moment limited to a pin-point
evaluation of the impact of the silvicultural
treatments 10 yr after their initiation. But we
are now considering a new series of
measurements on the same plots for a
diachronic comparison which would give a
better view on the change in specific diversity
following disturbance.
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For further information please contact :
Jean-François Molino
IRD (ex-ORSTOM)
CIRAD-Forêt
Campus International de Baillarguet
BP 5035
34032 Montpellier Cedex 1
France
Tel: +33 467 59 39 13
Email:
molino@mpl.ird.fr
THE EFFECTS OF REDUCED IMPACT LOGGING ON BIODIVERSITY: RESULTS FROM A PILOT STUDY IN SABAH, MALAYSIA
By A J Davis
A pilot study was carried out in 1997 at the
Danum Valley Field Centre in Sabah, East
Malaysia, looking at the effects of Reduced
Impact Logging (RIL) on biodiversity, using
dung beetles as indicators. In contrast to
conventional logging techniques, RIL employs
careful skid-trail planning, directional felling,
reduction or elimination of log landing sites
and the use of existing roads for log storage.
The benefits of RIL for biodiversity
conservation would seem to be clear, but
quantitative data comparing the two
techniques are currently lacking.
Commercial forest near the Danum Valley
Field Centre is divided into logging coupes,
with one coupe selectively logged per year.
Two sites were chosen from the 1993 logging
coupe, where previous research had already
been carried out (Pinard & Putz 1996). One
site had been logged conventionally and one
using the reduced-impact technique. Pinard's
original study paired four conventionally
logged with four reduced impact logged units,
based on similarity of topography and
logging schedule (Pinard & Putz 1996): the
two units chosen for insect sampling formed
such one pair. The conventionally logged
and reduced-impact site had been logged
over the same period during late 1993 and
early 1994. Both sites had had a high volume
of timber extracted, with an average of 106
m2 ha-1 extracted from the RIL site and 168
m2 ha-1 from the conventionally logged site
(representing 10.9 and 12.5 trees per ha
respectively).
Dung beetles were collected using flight
intercept traps (FITs). Previous work has
shown that two FITs run for 1 wk give a good
representative sample of beetle communities
in the forest where the traps are stationed.
The FIT consists of a vertical wall of black
terylene netting measuring 2.4 m x 1.1 m,
over which a plastic rain-cover is suspended.
The black net forms an apparently invisible
barrier to insects flying through the dark
forest interior: a solution of water, detergent
and chloral hydrate ensure that insects falling
into collecting trays are quickly killed. This
method prescribes a quantifiable effort to
trapping that allows comparison between one
habitat and another. Two traps were in the
RIL unit and two in the conventionally logged
unit. Traps were placed a short distance from
a skid trail so that a qualifiable and
comparable logging impact could be
attributed to the location of each FIT. Logging
impacts can be expected to be at their most
severe near skid trails, and so by putting traps
near skid trails the aim was to test the
effectiveness of RIL logging under extreme
conditions. The location and relative distance
of the two traps to the skid trail was the same
in both sites. Both sets of traps were run for
one week (13 - 20 November 1997).
Previous FITs had previously been used at
Danum in 1992, as part of a comprehensive
study looking at effects of logging on dung
beetle communities (see Davis et al. 2000).
Data from these traps formed a useful
comparison to data from the coupe 1993
traps. Two of the FITs from 1992 had been
set up in primary dipterocarp forest: one in
riverine forest adjacent to the Segama river,
next to the Danum Valley Field Centre, and
the other further into the forest away from
riverine/edge conditions, in the forest interior.
A further trap had been set up in forest
selectively logged in 1981, 11 yr post-logging:
this area had an average volume of 66.5 m3
ha-1 timber extracted. Each of these traps had
been run for 2 wk, and the collections are
therefore comparable to the RIL project traps,
the total collecting effort in all cases being 2
trap wk.
Collections from the four flight intercept traps
in the 1993 coupe contained 2,937 dung
beetle specimens, and 66 species. Similarity
indices between traps and sites
(beta-diversity) were calculated using the
Sorensen (CN) index, and the alpha and
Shannon (H') indices to examine the diversity
of individual sites. The higher diversity and
species richness was recorded in the RIL
forest (S = 57, N = 969, alpha = 13.23, H' =
3.24). The conventionally logged site had
both lower diversity and species richness (S
= 48, N= 1968, alpha = 8.88, H' = 1.89).
Previous work at Danum had shown that some dung beetle species were riverine specialists in that they show a significantly negative correlation between distance from the Segama and abundance, and other species were deep-primary specialists as they showed a significant positive correlation between distance from river and abundance (reported in Davis et al. 2000). The conventionally logged site lacked primary forest specialists present in RIL samples, but samples from both sites contained riverine/edge species not collected in interior-primary forest.
The greatest similarity was found between
the dung beetle community in the
conventional logged site and that in a second
conventional logging site harvested in 1981
(sampled 11 years after logging), with CN =
0.74. The next closest similarity was between
both 1993 coupe sites (RIL and
conventionally logged) and riverine forest
(CN = 0.48). The beta-diversity between the
reduced-impact and conventionally logged
sites was slightly lower with CN values of
0.42. Of the two 1993 coupe sites, the dung
beetle community in the RIL forest was most
similar to the dung beetle community in
primary (interior) forest, although both
assemblages were closer in similarity to
communities from riverine forest than they
were to ones from interior-forest habitat. The
lowest similarities recorded were between the
conventionally logged site and primary forest.
As the RIL site contained a more equitable
and diverse dung beetle assemblage and a
greater number of deep-primary specialists
than the conventionally logged site, this study
suggests that RIL had better preserved the
primary forest assemblage than conventional
logging techniques.
References:
Davis, A.J., Huijbregts, J. & Krikken, J. 2000. The role of local and regional processes in shaping dung beetle communities in tropical forest plantations in Borneo. Global Ecology and Biogeography 9: xx-xx (In press).
Pinard, M.A. and Putz, F.E. 1996. Retaining forest biomass by reducing logging damage. Biotropica 28: 278-95.
For further information please contact:
Dr Andrew J Davis
Department of Zoology
Downing Street
Cambridge CB2 3EJ
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 1223 336673
Fax: +44 1223 336676
Email:
ajd30@cus.cam.ac.uk
INDICATORS FOR FOREST BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AS TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
By H H de Iongh
The Tropenbos programme has developed, in
co-operation with the NWO priority
Programme for Biodiversity in Disturbed
Ecosystems, an extensive research
programme on biological indicators, covering
specific taxa ( like butterfly species),
functional groups ( like the woodpeckers
guild) and two integration studies modelling
successional stages of lowland tropical
rainforest and describing functional groups of
fauna indicators, related to these
successional stages. The ultimate goal of this
Tropenbos research is to provide forest
managers with operational indicators to
monitor the impact of their management; and
to develop models to predict the impact of
logging on biological diversity.
An integration study by Rene Verburg of the
National Herbarium covers a spatial
simulation model dealing with the
regeneration prospects, in terms of
biodiversity levels of secondary forest stages
after logging. Christiaan van der Hoeven of
Tropenbos is carrying out a desk study on
the available scientific information on fauna
indicators in Malaysian lowland forests. An
important conclusion of the latter study is
that the prospects for using avian guilds as
indicators for forest disturbance are
promising. Avian guilds are relatively easy to
assess through transect census techniques
and through vocal recognition (even by using
taped recordings).
The preliminary results of this research will
be discussed during an international
workshop in Kalimantan, 7-9 december 1999.
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For further information, please contact:
Dr Hans de Iongh
The Tropenbos Foundation
PO Box 232
6700 AE Wageningen
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317 426262
Fax: +31 317 423024
E-mail:
H.H.de.Iongh@iac.agro.nl
MOTH SAMPLING IN MALAYSIA: INDICATORS OF FOREST BIODIVERSITY UNDER LAND-USE CHANGE
by J D Holloway
Moths are readily sampled using light-traps
and, as they have often specifically
herbivorous early stages, have much to offer
as indicators for biodiversity inventory in
tropical forests and for monitoring
environmental changes in various types of
managed forest. Since the late 1970's a
loosely knit network of British and Malaysian
scientists has been exploring this concept in
Malaysian forests, with some ancillary
fieldwork in Indonesia. The focus within the
U.K. is the Department of Entomology. The
Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road,
London SW7 5BD, contacts being the author
and Dr G. S. Robinson . Other input has
come from the Universities of Abertay
Dundee, Leeds and Oxford and IACR
Rothamsted. In Malaysia the principals are
the Forest Research Institute Malaysia
(contact Dr Laurence Kirton), the Forest
Research Centre in Sabah (contact Dr Chey
Vun Khen), the universities in Sabah and
Sarawak, and the Malaysian Nature Society.
As well as ecological sampling, this network
has also generated considerable literature on
the basic biosystematics of SE Asian
Lepidoptera, and collaborates in this with the
Heterocera Sumatrana Society based in
Germany. Some loosely associated ecological
work has also been undertaken from
Germany by the University of Bayreuth. The
scope of the work undertaken so far can best
be conveyed by recent examples of works
published below. A fuller list can be obtained
from the author:
Jeremy D Holloway
Department of Entomology
The Natural History Museum
Cromwell Road
London SW7 5BD
United.Kingdom
Email:
jdh@nhm,ac.uk
References:
Chey, V.K., Holloway, J.D. & Speight, M.R. (1997)
Diversity of moths in forest plantation and natural
forests in Sabah. Bulletin of Entomological Research
87: 371-385.
Holloway, J.D. (1998) The impact of traditional and
modern cultivation practices, including forestry, on
Lepidoptera diversity in Malaysia and Indonesia. In
Newbery, D.M., Prins, H.H.T., Brown, N.D. (eds).
Dynamics of tropical communities, pp. 567-597. 37th
British Ecological Society Symposium, Cambridge,
1996. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Holloway, J.D. & Barlow, H.S. (1992) Potential for loss
of biodiversity in Malaysia, illustrated by the moth
fauna. In: Barlow, H.S. & Kadir, A. Aziz (eds). Pest
Management and the Environment in 2000, pp.
293-311. CAB International and Agricultural Institute
of Malaysia.
Intachat, J., Holloway, J.D. & Speight, M.R. (1997)
The effects of different forest management practices
on geometroid moth populations and their diversity in
Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest
Science 9: 411-430.
Intachat, J., Holloway, J.D. & Speight, M.R. (1999)
The impact of logging on geometroid moth
populations and their diversity in lowland forests of
Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest
Science 11: 61-78.
Willott, S.J. (in press) The effects of selective logging
on the distribution of moths in a Bornean rainforest.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,
London B.
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MEASURING ARTHROPOD DIVERSITY AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN TROPICAL FOREST ECOSYSTEMS: A CASE STUDY USING MOTHS AS DIVERSITY INDICATORS
By K Fiedler & C H Schulze
The aim of our research project is to
compare arthropod species diversity and
community structure across a gradient of
forest types, ranging from more or less
pristine primary rainforest across secondary
forest (after different degrees of logging or
other human influence) to cultivated areas.
Such a comparison will give us an
opportunity to estimate how much, and which
part, of the `biodiversity´ of forest insects can
be expected to occur under different regimes
of utilization. In most tropical countries
`secondary´ habitats will play an increasingly
important role in the future due to economic
and demographic development. Therefore,
we put a special emphasis on studying these
forest types which have attracted much less
attention of researchers during the past
decades than did primary forests. Besides its
general scientific interest, such information
will be of particular interest to local authorities
for planning forest management in the context
of sustainable development and utilization.
For our research project we have selected
small moths (the so-called `Microlepidoptera´)
as target organisms. This selection has a
number of reasons. (1) Small moths are
generally believed to be less mobile, and thus
more specialized geographically as well as
ecologically, than many larger insects. Hence,
communities of small moths can be expected
to show sufficient differentiation along the
gradients to be studied. (2) Small moths can
easily be sampled in a quantitative manner by
operating light-traps. (3) Because of their
small size, even large collections can be
handled and maintained without too much
space required. (4) There is a large species
diversity present in SE Asia, which is
taxonomically not yet well known, but still
manageable in size (at least as long as one
concentrates on particular subgroups, as we
will do with a main focus on the superfamily
Pyraloidea which comprise about 2000
species in SE Asia). (5) Because of their
small size and hence limited resource
requirements, quite a number of small moths
can be expected to survive even in small
habitat islands. (6) There are many potential
or even serious pests of forest trees and
agricultural crops among the
Microlepidoptera.
We have selected the Mt Kinabalu National
Park (Sabah, Malaysia) because this reserve
and its surroundings offers a wide range of
habitats from pristine primary forest to
cultivated areas. Furthermore, due to the
ongoing revisionary work of Dr. Jeremy
Holloway in the series `The Moths of Borneo´
(published by the Malaysian Nature Society),
Mt Kinabalu is probably the best known area
in South East Asia as far as moth taxonomy
and systematics are concerned. Hence, basic
data for our ecological project are available.
Field work started in 1997 and is already
finished. During the last three years regular
light-trapping was conducted in a number of
selected habitats and during different months
of the year to cover different rainfall
conditions (wet and dry season). Within the
forest habitats, sampling was not only
restricted to the forest understorey rather also
included the canopy layer to document the
vertical stratification of moth communities.
First results show that a dramatic change of
moth communities along our gradient of
human disturbance already can be found on
a higher taxonomic level (e.g. family level)
but also indicate that certain secondary
habitats can still maintain a high species
diversity and have to be taken into
consideration when discussing how to
preserve on a large geographic scale a
high amount of biodiversity in a long run.
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For further information please contact:
Christian Schulze
Department of Animal Ecology I
University of Bayreuth
95440 Bayreuth
Germany
Tel: +49 921 552649
Fax: +49 921 55 2784
Email:
christian.schulze@uni-bayreuth.de
http://www.uni-bayreuth.de/departments/
toek1/schulze/index.htm
Conrad Fiedler (address as above)
Tel: +49 921 552645
Fax: +49 921 552784
Email:
konrad.fiedler@uni-bayreuth.de
Http://www.uni-bayreuth.de/departments/toek1/fiedler
BOTANICAL DIVERSITY AT THE INTERNATIONAL MOFEC-TROPENBOS KALIMANTAN PROJECT, EAST KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA
P B Pelser & P J A Keßler
The National Herbarium of the Netherlands -
Leiden (NHN-L), with intensive co-operation of
The International MOFEC Tropenbos-Kalimantan-Project, has carried out numerous
botanical diversity studies in East Kalimantan,
Indonesia since 1989. These projects aim at
stimulating and developing sustainable forest
management, especially by the reforestation
of areas damaged by fires or by other
destructive activities like logging, mining or
shifting cultivation. A wide variety of trees is
used for this purpose. However, since
individual plant species often have specific
environmental requirements, some species
are obviously more suitable for reforestation
than others. Consequently, the planting of a
certain species in a habitat which is not
suitable for this particular taxon decreases the
success of reforestation remarkably. This
requires much emphasis on the correct
identification of the planted trees. Biodiversity
studies are an invaluable help in identifying
the most suitable species for reforestation for
a particular area. For these studies, many
plant specimens have been collected all over
the island of Borneo and are permanently
stored at the Wanariset Herbarium (WAN). All
data concerning these specimens are stored
in the BRAHMS database and can be
consulted via the website in the coming year.
One of the more recent research projects
resulted in a field guide with identification
keys, descriptions and line drawings of 280
selected tree species occurring in East
Kalimantan (Keßler & Sidiyasa, 1994). An
Indonesian translation of this book is currently
in press (Keßler & Sidiyasa, 1999). This field
guide focuses on the identification of adult
trees. Seedlings, however, may differ
conspicuously in their general morphology
from the adult stages and many
distinguishing characters are usually not yet
present. This makes the identification of
seedlings often very difficult.
In the field guide "Seedlings of secondary
forest tree species of East Kalimantan,
Indonesia" (Bodegom et al., 1999, in press)
descriptions and identification keys are
provided for seedlings of 113 taxa of
secondary forest trees (representing 40 plant
families), as well as drawings, colour
photographs of almost all species and an
extensive glossary. These data are presented
as a user-friendly bilingual field guide
(English / Indonesian).
These new publications will contribute to the
development of sustainable forest
management by enabling (local) people with
and also without a thorough botanical
background to identify many of the tree
species of East Kalimantan and emphasise
the importance of biodiversity research.
For further information please contact:
P B Pelser
National Herbarium of the Netherlands -
Leiden
P.O. Box 9514
2300 RA Leiden
The Netherlands
Email:
Pelser@nhn.leidenuniv.nl
P J A Kessler
The International MOFEC-Tropenbos-Kalimantan-Project
P.O. Box 319, Balikpapan 76100, Indonesia
Email:
Kessler@nhn.leidenuniv.nl
Email:
Trobos@indo.net.id
Literature:
Bodegom, S., Pelser, P.B. & Keßler, P.J.A. 1999.
Seedlings of secondary forest tree species of East
Kalimantan, Indonesia / Semai-semai pohon hutan
sekunder di Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia. Tropenbos-Kalimantan Series 1: 1-376.
Keßler, P.J.A. & Sidiyasa, K. 1994. Trees of the
Balikpapan-Samarinda area, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia. Tropenbos series 7: 1-446.
Keßler, P.J.A. & Sidiyasa, K. 1999. Pohon-pohon
hutan Kalimantan Timur. Tropenbos-Kalimantan series
2: 1-472.
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A METHODOLOGY FOR PREPARING
PLANT FIELD GUIDES IN THE TROPICS
If biodiversity is to be valued, conserved and
used more effectively, it is important that a
wide range of people should be able to
identify the taxa, and learn more about them,
either by linking with scientific knowledge or
documenting and enhancing local knowledge.
There is considerable experience in producing
field guides, written by scientists for
scientists, and in the North, experience in
producing guides which are more accessible
to a general public. When using biodiversity in
rural development, however, and when
meeting the commitments made under the
Convention on Biological Diversity, many
institutions in tropical countries wish to
provide field guides to facilitate accurate
species identification and provide wider
knowledge about those species. What are the
challenges for botanists, of writing guides for
local communities, extension workers, or
ecotourists? Conversely, what should a
development worker do to write guides that
are scientifically accurate?
Two new projects funded by the Forestry
Research Programme of the UK Department
for International Development will be working
in tandem to address these questions. The
two projects together will produce a handbook
(How to produce useful guides to forest plants
in the tropics) intended to stimulate and
facilitate the production of new field guides.
This will be in two parts: Planning and
process (coordinated by Anna Lawrence, of
the Green College Centre for Natural
Resources and Development (CNRD)), and
Botanical aspects (coordinated by Colin
Hughes and William Hawthorne, of the
Department of Plant Sciences (DPS)), both
within Oxford University, UK.
The projects will explore different approaches
to writing field guides, by assessing the
experience of writing and using existing
guides, working with a range of user groups
to define their information needs, and
particularly through a process approach to
the preparation and empirical field testing of
guides in collaboration with user groups and
specialists. The research will also involve the
analysis of resources required to prepare
different types of guides.
Our aim is to enable botanical and non-specialist authors to work together with
potential users, to produce field guides which
benefit rural livelihoods and biodiversity. To
do this, we will explore and document ways
to combine scientific and local knowledge in
an effective and usable way. Guides will be
written as the result of an iterative and
collaborative process with user groups,
ensuring that they are accurate and effective
as resources allow, and meet real user-group
demands.
Each project will be collaborating with
institutions in tropical countries to write field
guides and learn from the process of doing
so. The CNRD project links with Bolivia and
Brazil, and is collaborating with the
Fundación Amigos de la Naturaleza (FAN)
and Centro de Investigación Agrícola
Tropical (CIAT) in Bolivia, and with
Universidade de Estadual de Feira de
Santana, Bahia (UEFS), Assessoría e
Serviços a Projetos em Agricultura
Alternativa (AS-PTA), and the Centro
Nordestino de Informação sobre Plantas
(CNIP) of the Universidade Federal de
Pernambuco in Brazil. Specifically, we
envisage producing the following guides:
In Bolivia: one guide for ecotourists, for the
area around Bajo Paragua, Noel Kempff
Mercado National Park; one guide to the
timber tree species, for communities involved
in sustainable forest management in the
buffer zone. In Brazil: a technical
identification guide to all forage legumes in
the state of Bahia, for use by agronomists,
including those working with the PTA network
of NGOs, and for conservation / botanists /
park wardens in Chapada Diamantina
National Park; this will include more formal
means of identification; a more practical
guide to the 30 most promising species, for
use by community workers; this would include
cultivation and nutrition details for example.
Details will be defined through
consultation/participation with communities
involved.
The DPS project links up with Ghana,
Grenada and Mexico, and aims to prepare the
following guides (i) In Ankasa, Ghana: the
most important NTFPs (< 25 species in total -
palms, Marantaceae and Garcinia species),
the 100 big trees of Ankasa, the genera and
species of Rubiaceae with particular
emphasis on Psychotria species for
ecotourists. (ii) In Grenada: woody forest
plants (100-150 species), (iii) In Quintana
Roo, Mexico: compound-leaved woody forest
plants (ca. 150 species)
We would be interested in hearing from others
with experience in producing user-friendly
field guides in rural development
contexts. Please contact:
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Dr Anna Lawrence
Centre for Natural Resources and
Development
Green College
University of Oxford
Woodstock Road
Oxford OX 2 6HG
United Kingdom
Email:
AnnaL1@aol.com
or
anna.lawrence@green.ox.ac.uk
Drs Colin Hughes and William Hawthorne
Department of Plant Sciences
University of Oxford
South Parks Road
Oxford OX1 3RB
United Kingdom
FIRE IN MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS: A PROGENITOR OR THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY?
By H Asbjørnsen, L E Næss, and E Torres
Fire history in moist tropical forests
Fire has traditionally been viewed as a
destructive force in forest ecosystems often
causing the loss of a large portion of the
living biomass and drastically changing the
landscape structure and species
composition. This is especially the case for
tropical moist forests where fire events
generally occur at time intervals greater than
the human life-span, contributing to the
perception of fire as 'unnatural' and
'disastrous'. Evidence from charcoal
fragments indicates that fires have occurred
in the Brazilian Amazon since 6250 BP
(Sanford et al. 1984), while similar findings
have been reported for moist tropical forests
in Central America (Horn and Sanford 1992)
and Asia (Goldammer and Seibert 1990).
Past fires in the tropics originated from either
'natural' or 'anthropogenic' causes; however,
the two are often intricately linked. In fact,
the recent trend of increasing fire frequency
in the humid tropics is largely due to
synergistic interactions between both human
land use activities (e.g., clearing lands for
agriculture and grazing) and natural
disturbance events (e.g., lightning strikes,
extreme droughts events) (Hao and Liu 1994,
Whitmore and Burslem 1996, McPhaden
1999).
The shattering of the myth that tropical
rainforests do not burn raises an important
question: How do fires affect biodiversity and,
in turn, the structure and function of moist
tropical ecosystems at different temporal and
spatial scales? Under which conditions, if
any, may fire serve to maintain biological and
ecosystem diversity? The answers to these
questions have important implications for the
future conservation and management of these
forests. This article presents a project
currently being developed to explore these
issues further in the Chimalapas region of
southern Mexico.
The 'El Niño' fires in Chimalapas, Mexico
During the extreme droughts associated with
the El Niño-Southern Oscillation event of
1997-8, severe fires occurred in many parts of
the world. In the Chimalapas region of
Oaxaca, Mexico, where extreme droughts are
rare, the decreased fuel moisture and low
relative humidity associated with the El Niño
drought increased the likelihood of ignition,
combustion rates, and the spread of fire.
These processes were further amplified by the
use of fire by local people for preparing
agricultural and grazing lands. Consequently,
an estimated 35% (21,000 ha) of the total
forested area in the Chimalapas region were
affected by fire. Over 50% of the fires
occurred in primary cloud forest or moist
tropical rainforest that had not been recorded
as having experienced fire previously
(SERBO, per. com.). Since the Chimalapas
is considered to be a center of biological
diversity and endemism in the Americas
(Lorence and Mendoza 1989, Salas et al.
1997), these fires have raised concerns about
potential species extinctions, ecosystem
destruction, and habitat conversion.
However, the paucity of knowledge about
ecosystem recovery processes following fire
and the influence of fire on ecosystem
dynamics and biodiversity in moist tropical
forests poses constraints on efforts aimed at
managing and conserving post-fire
ecosystems in the Chimalapas region and
elsewhere.
Fire, heterogeneity, and biodiversity
Addressing the relationship between a large-scale disturbance such as fire and biodiversity requires an understanding of how environmental variability--which forms an underlying foundation for species biodiversity (Bazzaz 1979, Sousa, 1984, Hobbie et al. 1993)--is influenced by the disturbance. In the mountainous and deeply dissected landscape of the Chimalapas, the environmental characteristics that influence fire dynamics (especially wind, topography, and moisture) show a high degree of spatial variability. Environmental changes occur over a relatively short altitudinal range in response to a combination of atmospheric and topographic variables. Initial field surveys conducted in 1999 confirmed a strong altitudinal gradient in fire severity. More severe burns occurred on the ridges and saddles where increased wind and drier hydrological conditions created vegetative communities with higher flammability. Lighter burns were more common in the lower mountainsides, where wet valley bottoms provided natural firebreaks. Differences in burn intensity were reflected by variations in the amount of surface soil organic matter and proportion of root biomass burned (between 3-10 cm and 0-80%, respectively) (unpubl. results).
Landscape heterogeneity was further
augmented during the following rainy season,
as resources were re-distributed in the
landscape in response to hydrological
processes. Observations suggested that the
nutrient rich ash layer was particularly prone
to erosion, especially on sites where the
vegetation cover and the organic material
below the soil surface had been consumed by
fire. Areas where ground fires only affected
the superficial humus layers, leaving the
deeper layers of organic material and roots
intact, appeared to be less immediately prone
to erosion. However, on steep hill-slopes
these soils may also be predisposed to
erosion, depending on the proportion of live
roots still intact and the survival rates of the
mature trees.
Thus, although fire must be recognized to
have a homogenizing effect on the ecosystem
when compared to the original pre-fire
conditions, the complex interactions between
site conditions and fire dynamics will result in
highly diverse microsites available for seed
germination and plant establishment. For
example, field observations indicated that
certain plant species (eg Phytolacca,
gramineas) were highly adapted to
establishing following fire and quickly invaded
the burned areas. Seedlings of Pinus and
Quercus also established in burned areas
where a seed source was available nearby,
while other more tropical species did not
occur as seedlings. Reorganization and
heterogeneity of resources and microclimate
conditions caused by the fires will likely have
profound implications for patterns and
processes of ecosystem recovery in this
landscape. Further, the responses of fauna
within the fire affected areas also reflect
significant ecosystem changes, for example,
the reduction of individuals in spider monkey
packs and the absence of quetzal
(Pharomachrus mocinno). However, the long-term implications of these changes in
biodiversity and ecosystem functions are not
well understood.
Research on fire in the Chimalapas
Given that under current trends, human
pressures are likely to result in continued
burning of moist forest in the Chimalapas
and in other tropical regions in the world,
improving our understanding of changes in
ecosystem processes and functions in
response to fire is imperative for the
sustainable management and conservation of
these areas.
Further, the high degree of dependence by
local populations on the forest resources in
these regions reinforces the need to promote
local participation in both research and
management activities.
Research to evaluate and monitor the
ecological effects of fire in the Chimalapas is
currently in the preliminary stages. The
project will focus on the following objectives:
Evaluate the effects of the fires on
biodiversity and the recovery of ecosystem
structure and function.
Assess the response of locally valued species to fire disturbance as a basis for designing plans for their sustainable management.
Utilize participatory methodologies for
integrating local knowledge and experience
within the research process in order to
facilitate applications to local resource
management.
Provide recommendations for national, regional and community scale conservation and management strategies.
For more information, please contact:
Heidi Asbjornsen (Assistant Professor,
Project Leader)
Agricultural University of Norway
Department of Forest Sciences
P.O. Box 5044
1432 Ås,
Norway
Tel: +47 64 94 8896
Fax: +47 64 94 8890
Email:
heidi.asbjornsen@isf.nlh.no
Elisabeth Torres (Biologist,
Researcher)Society for Research on the Biotic
Resources of Oaxaca (SERBO)
Porfirio Díaz 211, Colonia Centro
Oaxaca, Oax., Mexico
Email:
serbo@antequera.com
References:
Bazzaz, FA. 1979. The physiological ecology of plant
succession. Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics. 10:351-371.
Goldammer, J.G. and B. Seibert. 1990. The impact
o drought and forest fires on tropical lowland rain
forest of East Kalimantan. In: Goldammer, J.G. Fire
in the Tropical Biota. pp. 11-31. Springer: New York.
Hao, W.M. and M.H. Liu. 1994. Spatial and temporal
distribution of tropical biomass burning. Global
Biogeochemical Cycles. 894):495-503.
Hobbie SE, DB Jensen, FS Chapin, III. 1993.
Resource supply and disturbance as controls over
present and future plant diversity. In: Schulze, ED
and HA Mooney. (eds) Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Function. Springer-Verlag: New York. pp. 385-408.
Horn, S.P. and R.L. Sanford Jr. 1992. Holocene fires
in Costa Rica. Biotropica 24:354-361.
Kauffman, J.B., R.L. Sanford, Jr., D.L. Cummings,
I.H. Salcedo, E.V.S.B. Sampaio. 1993. Biomass and
nutrient dynamics associated with slash fires in
neotropical dry forests. Ecology. 74(1):140-151.
McPhaden, M.J. 1999. The child prodigy of 1997-98. Nature. 398:559-562.
Sanford, R.L., Jr., J. Saldarriaga, K.E. Clark, C. Uhl
and R. Herrera. 1985. Amazon rain-forest fires.
Science. 27:52-55.
Sousa, WP. 1984. The role of disturbance in natural
communities. Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics. 1:353-391.
Whitmore, T.C. and D.F.R.P. Burslem. 1996. Major
disturbances in tropical rainforests. In: Newbery,
D.M, H.H.T. Prins, and N.D. Brown. Dynamics of
Tropical Communities. pp. 549-56. Blackwell
Science: London.
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FOREST IMPOVERISHMENT BY FIRE - THE TROPICAL AND GLOBAL CONTEXT
by J G Goldammer
Rationale
Fire is a dominant disturbance regime in
almost all vegetation zones throughout the
world. In many ecosystems such as in the
tropical and subtropical savannas and the
seasonal dry forests and woodlands in the
ecotones between savannas and evergreen
rainforests fire is an omnipresent essential
and ecologically significant force. Recurrent
fires organize physical and biological
attributes, shape landscape diversity, and
influence energy flows and biogeochemical
cycles, particularly the global carbon cycle.
Conversely, in some ecosystems fire is an
unnatural process that often leads to
vegetation destruction and/or long-term site
degradation, yet these regions, particularly in
the equatorial rainforests, are becoming
increasingly vulnerable to fire due to growing
population, economic, and land use
pressures. Even in regions where fire is
natural (e.g. the boreal zone), more frequent
severe fire weather conditions have created
recurrent major fire problems in recent years.
Extreme wildfire events are increasing
throughout the world, with significant impacts
on economies and human health and safety.
Despite this high profile, current estimates of
the extent and impact of vegetation fires
globally are far from complete. Several
hundred million hectares of forest and other
vegetation burn annually throughout the
world, but it is assumed that a large fraction
is not documented or recorded.
The baseline knowledge on tropical fires
Under the impression of the extreme wildfire
and smoke pollution episode of 1982-83 in
Australasia and Africa, facilitated by the El
Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
phenomenon, and the rapidly increasing rate
of forest clearing in the Amazon Basin in the
mid-1980s the first international forum on
'Fire in the Tropical Biota' was convened at
Freiburg University, Germany, in May 1989.
The international science community actively
involved in the exploration of the underlying
causes and impacts of fire on tropical
ecosystems prepared the first pan-tropical
analysis on fire (Goldammer 1990).
Furthermore, in the 'Freiburg Declaration on
Tropical Fires' the conference participants
expressed their concern about the
increasingly detrimental impact of fire and the
urgent need for action; the scientists
underscored that fire is an important
traditional tool in land-use systems which
requires proper management.
However, the UNCED-initiated process and
international environmental management
programs in the early 1990s did not take
notice of the steadily increasing fire problem
in the equatorial forest belt. Nevertheless,
despite the limited political and public
awareness of the tropical fire problem
research projects grew at a nearly exponential
rate. A major initiative was established under
the International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme (IGBP). The Biomass Burning
Experiment (BIBEX), an activity of the IGBP
core project 'International Global Atmospheric
Chemistry' (IGAC), established a focus of
interdisciplinary research by bringing together
the fire ecology and atmospheric science
communities. BIBEX aimed and successfully
accomplished the clarification of the role of
vegetation fires on biodiversity
impoverishment, biogeochemical cycles and
on regional to global atmospheric chemistry
(e.g., Goldammer et al. 1996, JGR 1998,
BIBEX 1998).
Research and technology transfer, however,
gave insufficient attention to explore the
implications of social and economic
development, the loss of traditional values in
forest and other land management, and
dramatically increasing land-use changes, on
change of fire regimes and impacts. The
search for socially and politically acceptable
and technically feasible fire management
approaches was limited to Integrated Forest
Fire Management (IFFM) pilot projects, such
as the Indonesia-Germany or the
Namibia-Finland community-based IFFM
projects (Goldammer 1993, IFFM/GTZ 1996,
Jurvélius 1998).
Recently, after the 1997-98 fire episode in
Southeast Asia and the Americas, a series of
investigations revived the general interest on
the destructive role of fire in rain forest
ecosystems by unveiling the process of
gradual forest impoverishment by logging
and fire ('cryptic' deforestation) and the
limitations of forest inventories by remote
sensing to detect initial disturbances
(Nepstad et al. 1999, Cochrane et al. 1999,
Goldammer 1999); numerous studies were
conducted in South East Asia on the rain
forest biodiversity impoverishment by fire.
A global fire information network
In order to allow better access to past achievements and ongoing research and development programmes and projects an international network has been established. The Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) provides a platform for sharing information between the different users groups, notably fire scientists, policy makers and fire managers. The readers of this ETFRN Newsletter are encouraged to visit the GFMC website at: http://www.uni-freiburg.de/
fireglobe. On more than 5000 folders
information can be found on daily global fire
events, fire emissions, global daily, weekly
and monthly fire-weather forecasts, special
sites for the SE Asia situation, programmes
and projects of national and international
agencies and programmes, literature and
numerous links to national and institutional
fire websites all over the world.
ETFRN members are encouraged to actively share their expertise in tropical fire research with the international community. Contributions for the GFMC and the UN-FAO/ECE International Forest Fire News (IFFN) are welcome. GFMC/IFFN communication coordinates can be found on the GFMC website.
References
Cochrane, M.A., Alencar, A., Schulze, M.D., Souza, C.M., Nepstad, D.C., Levebvre, P. & Davidson, E.A. 1999. Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamics of closed canopy tropical forests. Science 284:1832.
Goldammer, J.G. (ed.) 1990. Fire in the tropical biota: ecosystem processes and global challenges. Ecological Studies 84, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 497 pp.
Goldammer, J.G. 1993. Long-term national integrated forest fire management programme Initiated at Bandung. Int. Forest Fire News No. 8, 9-12.
Goldammer, J.G. 1999. Forests on fire. Science 284:1782-1783.
Goldammer, J.G., Seibert, B. &.Schindele, W. 1996. Fire in dipterocarp forests. Pp 155-185 in: Dipterocarp forest ecosystems: towards sustainable management (A. Schulte & D.Schöne, eds.). World Scientific Publications, Singapore.
IFFM/GTZ. 1996. Integrated forest fire management project in East Kalimantan. Int. Forest Fire News No.14, 29-30
IGBP-IGAC 1998. Special issue on IGAC Biomass burning experiment (BIBEX). Int. Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGBP) Project Newsletter IGACtivities No.15. Massachussetts Institute for Technology, Cambridge, USA..
Journal of Geophysical Research (JGR) Special Issue 1996. Southern Tropical Atlantic Regional Experiment (STARE): TRACE-A and SAFARI. J. Geophys. Res. 101, No. D19, 23,519-24,330.
Jurvélius, M. 1998. Thirty percent reduction in fire incidents in three years. Int. Forest Fire News No.19, 67-70.
Nepstad, D.C., Verissimo, A., Alencar, A., Nobre, C., Lima, E., Levebvre, P., Schlesinger, P., Potter, C., Moutinho, P., Mendoza, E., Cochrane, M. & Brooks, V. 1999. Large-scale impoverishment of Amazonian forests by logging and fire. Nature 398:505-508.
For further information please contact:
top of page
Johann G Goldammer
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
Fire Ecology Research Group
The Global Fire Monitoring Center
c/o Freiburg University
79085 Freiburg
Germany
Tel: +49 761 808011
Fax: +49 761 808012
Email:
jggold@uni-freiburg.de.
Http://www.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe
THE ATLANTIC FOREST OF SOUTH BAHIA, BRAZIL: A HOTSPOT WITHIN A HOTSPOT
By Peter Sips
Introduction
Of the original area supporting Atlantic forest,
which extended from Ceará in the north-east
to Rio Grande do Sul in the south, the major
part has disappeared due to large scale
deforestation that began soon after the
discovery of Brazil. Today only 1 to 5 percent
of the original forest cover remains (McNeely
et al., 1990; Por, 1992). The primary causes
of deforestation were, and still are, logging of
high value timber species, e.g. 'Brazil wood'
(Caesalpinia echinata), 'Rose wood'
(Dalbergia spp.), and 'Pallisander'
(Aspidosperma polyneuron), and the need for
land for agricultural purposes, mainly
pastures and the cultivation of sugar cane and
coffee. In addition, charcoal production, the
implementation of large-scale plantations of
Eucalyptus and Pinus for cellulose production,
and urbanisation, are important causes of
current destruction of the Atlantic forest
(Dean, 1995; Por, 1992).
In South Bahia processes of large-scale
deforestation started in the 1970's when the
BR-101 highway was constructed, connecting
the northern and southern parts of the country
through the littoral area. This was followed by
the establishment of and many government-subsidised sawmills. The absence of clear
responsibilitiesconcerning forest management
or reforestation caused a massive reduction
of the Atlantic forest area. As a result of
cacao cultivation, in which traditional methods
of cultivation are usually employed where
native trees are left as shade for cacao trees
and patches of relatively undisturbed forest
are retained, South Bahia has conserved
several important stretches of Atlantic forest
as well as numerous small patches. However,
it is estimated that only 0.4% of the original
Bahian coastal forests remain intact. An
additional 3.1% exists as fragments smaller
than 400 ha.
Stagnation of the cacao market threatens to
increase the rate of deforestation. An
additional threat to the forests is the fast
growing tourist industry in the coastal area
(for example in and around the vicinity of
Porto Seguro, currently Brazil's most
important tourist centre), resulting in an
increasing flow of people to the area in search
of a better life, land speculation, road
construction, uncontrolled urbanisation and
pollution, and consequently a growing
demand for land and construction wood.
Biodiversity
The Atlantic forest contains a high degree of
biological diversity and endemism. An
inventory of a 1 ha Atlantic forest plot in
South Bahia, conducted by the New York
Botanical Garden in 1993, revealed an
astonishing 450 tree species (>5 cm dbh),
which at that time was the highest recorded
level of tree species diversity in the world.
Moreover, many of these species were new
to science (NYBG, 1993).
The level of tree species Endemism is greater
than 50% (Mori et al., 1981; Thomas et al.,
1998). Among the non-arborescent families
the level is more than 75%, and for
mammals endemism is almost 40%. For
primates the level of endemism is
approximately 80%, and reaches up to 92%
for amphibians in the Atlantic forest. Further,
at least 158 endemic species of birds are
found in the forest (McNeely et al., 1990;
Mori, 1989; Por, 1992). The South
Bahia/North Espírito Santo region is
considered to be one of the three centres of
endemism of the coastal forest region. The
other two areas are the northern
Pernambuco/Alagoas centre and the
southern São Paulo/Rio de Janeiro centre
(Diegeus, 1995; Thomas et al., 1998).
Money and politics
Although the felling of trees in primary
Atlantic forest was forbidden by law in 1993,
and IBAMA (Brazilian Federal Environmental
Institute) declared the Atlantic forest as the
'most endangered biome of Brazil',
deforestation has not substantially
diminished. Following protest
demonstrations, IBAMA soon legitimised
swidden farming and made any exploitation
conditional on submitting a plan of undefined
sustained management. The Atlantic forest
was further 'outlawed' by the wide range of
legal categories of protected areas, the
different administrative levels, the lack of
clear definitions on the status of protection
and permitted human interference, and the
difficulties of enforcing the law. Competition
between governmental agencies (e.g. road
departments, water authorities, and power
companies), political interests during local,
regional or state elections, and the power of
oil and reforestation companies, all
contributed to the on-going deforestation.
The Monte Pascoal National Park in South
Bahia, established in 1943 as Brazil's third
National Park, is a good but sad example of
the Government's impotence and of the
conflicting economic/political interests
concerning the preservation of the Atlantic
forest and its indigenous people. Despite its
legal status, more than one-third of the total
area of 22,500 ha has already been
destroyed, of which the majority disappeared
within the last decade (Dean, 1995).
Nowadays a so-called 'green line' highway is
opening up new coastal areas from Porto
Seguro to Monte Pascoal.
Conservation
Over the last decade concern for the fate of
the Atlantic forest by non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) has increased
considerably, as has the impact of NGOs on
influencing environmental policy. The
Consórsio Mata Atlântica, established in 1988
and coordinating between the different
Atlantic forest states and their conservationist
authorities, contributed significantly to the
declaration of the Atlantic Forest Biosphere
Reserve within the framework of the Man and
the Biosphere program (MAB) of UNESCO in
the Rio Ribeira area of Paraná and southern
São Paulo (Diegues, 1995). The S.O.S. Mata
Atlântica foundation, established in the mid
1980s, organises symposia, produces
important cartographic material and
coordinates a wide range of educational and
lobbying activities. Apart from these two
nation-wide operating NGOs, numerous local
NGOs are active. The Rede de ONG's Mata
Atlântica, established in 1992, now involves
over 120 institutions in 16 states.
Unprecedented, actions by local NGOs in the
early nineties lead to the legal conviction of
Vera Cruz Florestal (VCF, part of the
multinational Odebrecht Group), after the
company had deforested more then 60 ha of
Atlantic forest in order to install a Eucalyptus
plantation. This was part of the plan to set up
various cellulose and paper factories in the
South Bahia/North Espírito Santo region.
VCF, obliged to reforest the devastated area
with native species, now owns its own forest
reserve close to Porto Seguro and claims to
contribute to the conservation of the Atlantic
forest through ecological research and tree
planting.
Through supporting the NGOs, groups such
as the Ford Foundation, the World Wildlife
Fund (WWF), Conservation International (CI)
and the Nature Conservancy try to endorse
their priority of conserving the Atlantic
forests. CI, the Ford Foundation, and USAID,
for instance, support IESB (Instituto de
Estudos Sócio-Ambientais do Sul da Bahia)
to preserve the 11,400 ha Una Biological
Reserve in South Bahia. Through the Rain
Forest Pilot Program, coordinated by the
World Bank and supported by the Brazilian
Government, the G7, the EC and the
Netherlands, funds are directed towards the
establishment of ecological corridors. The
aim is to establish a participatory
management system, increase the size of
and linkage of Atlantic forest patches, and
set up effective biodiversity conservation in
these areas.
Conservation of the Atlantic forest biome is
most urgent. Given the social, economic and
political dimensions, full cooperation and
participation of all parties involved are of
utmost importance. In this context, the
linkage of forest remnants (through the
establishment of corridors planted with native
and/or plantation species), multiple-use of
secondary forests, agroforestry, cacao
cultivation, local communities' participation,
funding, law enforcement, and awareness
raising and education are important items to
be addressed.
Sites of interest:
http://www.tnc.org/brazil/forest.htm(The Nature
Conservancy)
http://www.bdt.org.br/sci?sci.cons
(Base de Dados
Tropical)
http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/offrep/lac/ppg7/index.html
(World Bank, Pilot Program)
http://www.wcmc.org.uk
(World Conservation
Monitoring Centre)
http://www.fbpn.org.br/Reserva1.asp
(Fundação
Boticário de Proteção a Natureza)
http://www.wwf.org/action/global200/new/25_af.html
(WWF)
http://www.conservation.org/web/fieldact/hotspots/brazil.htm
(Conservation International)
http://www.nybg.org/bsci/res/bahia/cf-sites.html
(New
York Botanical Gardens)
References
Dean, W., 1995. With broadaxe and firebrand. The
destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic forest. University of
California Press, Berkeley, USA. 482 pp.
Diegeus, A.C., 1995. The Mata Atlântica Biosphere Reserve: an overview. South-South cooperation programme in environmentally sound socio-economic development in the humid tropics. Working Papers no. 1. MAB/UNESCO, Paris, France. 36 pp.
McNeely, Jeffrey, A., Kenton R. Miller, Walter, V.
Reid, Russel A. Mittermeier and Timothy B. Werner,
1990. Conserving the World's Biological Diversity.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; WRI, CI, WWF-US, and
the World Bank, Washington, D.C. 193 pp.
Mori, S.A., Boom, B.M. and G.T. Prance, 1981.
Distribution Patterns and Conservation of Eastern
Brazilian Coastal Forest Tree Species. Brittonia, 33(2):
233-245.
Mori, S.A., 1989. Eastern, Extra-Amazonian Brazil. In:
Campbell, D.G. and D. Hammonds (eds.). Floristic
Inventory of Tropical Countries: The Status of Plant
Systematics, Collections and Vegetation, plus
Recommendations for the Future. N.Y. Botanical
Garden. pp. 427-454.
NYBG, 1993. New in the botanical book of records: highest tree diversity in the world. Field Notes from the New York Botanical Gardens, Volume 2, number 1, spring 1993.
Por, F.D., 1992. Sooretama, the Atlantic rain forest of
Brazil. 130 pp. SPB Academic Publishing. The
Hague, The Netherlands.
Sooretama, the Atlantic rain forest of Brazil. 130 pp. SPB Academic Publishing. The Hague, The Netherlands.
Thomas, WM. W, Carvalho, A.M.V. de, Amorim, A.M.A., Garison, J. and A.L. Arbeláez, 1998. Plant endemism in two forests in southern Bahia.
For further information, please contact:
top of page
Peter Sips
The Tropenbos Foundation
PO Box 232
6700 AE Wageningen
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317 426262
Fax: +31 317 423024
Email:
p.a.sips@iac.agro.nl
Http://www.tropenbos.nl
THE INVASION OF PIPER ADUNCUM IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA: FRIEND OR FOE?
by A E Hartemink
About 75% of the landmass of Papua New
Guinea is covered with primary forest which
is assumed to have a high biodiversity.
Overall there has been little decrease in the
area under primary forest although some
decrease results from logging activities and
expansion of plantation agriculture. Shifting
cultivation is the main form of agricultural
land-use but due to intensification of the
agricultural systems there has been little
extension into primary forest areas. There are
large areas in the humid lowlands where Piper
aduncum L., a native from Central America,
has invaded forming locally monospecific
stands. Despite P. aduncum's rapid invasion
and widespread occurrence very little
research has been conducted on its invasion
and effects.
The invasion
Many parts of the tropics have been invaded
with new plant and animal species which may
have devastating effects on native
ecosystems. Animals have received relatively
more attention than plants, but the
introduction of plants can be devastating as
well. An example which has recently gained
research attention in Africa and Asia is the
small shrub Chromolaena odorata L., a native
of Central and South America which was
brought to Asia in the late 19th century. It has
spread rapidly across Asia and arrived in
Africa in the 1940s where it is suppressing the
native regrowth in shifting cultivation systems.
An example from the Pacific is Miconia
calvescens DC which was introduced in Tahiti
in 1936 where it now called the 'green cancer'.
Miconia has become a major plant pest in the
Society Islands of French Polynesia. Invasion
of plant species has also been reported by
other workers from Mauritius, and Hawaii.
In Papua New Guinea, the tall shrub Piper
aduncum L., that originates from South
America now dominates much of the
secondary fallow vegetation. It occurs widely
in the Morobe and Madang Provinces at
altitudes up to 600 m asl, and is found in the
highland provinces up to altitudes of 1800 m
asl. P. aduncum is frequently observed along
logging tracks and on fallow sites where it
often forms monospecific stands. It occurs in
soil seed banks and appears to be fast
growing.
P. aduncum is indigenous to tropical America
where it is found from Mexico to Bolivia. Its
habitat in Central America is restricted to
evergreen vegetation and near watercourses
in seasonally deciduous forests, from sea
level to about 1500 m asl. P. aduncum was
introduced in Indonesia in 1860, and is now
commonly found in Irian Jaya and Malaysia.
In the Pacific it occurs in Fiji but is not found
in Hawaii or Northern Australia where it is on
the quarantine list. It is unknown how and
when P. aduncum arrived in Papua New
Guinea but it was firstly described in the
Morobe Province in 1935. It was not listed in
the standard work on Papua New Guinea
Vegetation by Paijmans from 1976 and its
rapid spread occurred in the past two to three
decades. Most farmers clearly remember
when they observed P. aduncum for the first
time in their fields.
Research in progress
In 1996 we started a series of experiments with P. aduncum in the humid lowlands (about 3000 to 4500 mm rain/year) in order to investigate reasons for its spreading and the effects on soil and crop productivity in shifting cultivation systems. We conducted (i) a seed bank study, (ii) measured the rate of height growth and nutrient and biomass accumulation, (iii) studied the chemical composition and decomposition pattern of its leaves, and (iv) quantified the effects on soil properties and agricultural crops following the fallow. Not all of the data have been analysed yet but some of the results are discussed here. Large numbers of viable P. aduncum seeds occurred in forest and fallow soils and the seed bank occurred in numbers greater than other species conferring a competitive advantage during regeneration. Two-year old P. aduncum shrubs were 4.5 m high and had accumulated nearly 50 t/ha of dry matter (DM). It was found that the growth rate of P. aduncum both in biomass and height is favoured by high rainfall. Highest growth rates were 134 kg DM/ha/day and it seems that the humid conditions in combination with the relatively fertile soils in the Papua New Guinea lowlands favour rapid growth. Total nutrient accumulation after one year was 120 kg N, 22 kg P, 298 kg K and 157 kg Ca per hectare. We further found that P. aduncum fallows had no strong effect on sweet potato yield compared to other fallow vegetation. However, soils were significantly drier under P. aduncum fallows and the data confirm what most farmers say about P. aduncum i.e., that it depletes soil moisture.
Friend or foe?
It is generally assumed that exotic species
might more easily invade in areas of low
species diversity than areas of high species
diversity because of more complete use of the
resources by high species diversity. The
lowland rain forests of Papua New Guinea
have a very high biodiversity and therefore P.
aduncum must have a competitive advantage
over the native species explaining its rapid
invasion. Our research suggests that its
advantage is related to its extremely fast
growth enabling it to quickly outgrow
associated pioneer tree species. This may
imply a loss of biodiversity. The spreading of
P. aduncum largely occurred through logging,
shifting cultivation and forest fires, which were
particularly severe in the 1997/98 El Niño
Southern Oscillation. P. aduncum has the
ability to resprout once damaged, which is a
trait that would favour persistence in
disturbance-prone environments where the
vegetation is not completely removed. P.
aduncum's presence in small gaps in closed
forest, and its proliferation on frequently
disturbed fallow sites suggest it has a
catastrophic and gap-phase regeneration
pattern. Catastrophic natural disturbances,
such as landslides or stand-devastating wind-throw which are not uncommon in the
lowlands, are another possibility for the
spreading of P. aduncum.
There are also some advantages. First, it grows very fast and we have never observed soil erosion under P. aduncum. It also accumulates large amounts of potassium which becomes available to agricultural crops when the vegetation is slashed and decomposed. It has been observed that locally man-made grasslands (mainly Imperata cylindrica) have reverted to bush fallow vegetation. Farmers prefer woody regrowth above grasslands as it provides firewood and it also provides better soil cover. Another possible advantage is that research in C and S America has shown that P. aduncum has ethno-pharmacological properties which have not been explored in Papua New Guinea. However, much of the natural vegetation it replaces may also have such properties.
For further details please contact:
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Alfred Hartemink
International Soil Reference and Information
Centre (ISRIC)
PO Box 353
6700 AJ, Wageningen
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317 471 711
Fax: +31 317 471 700
Email:
hartemink@isric.nl
Http://www.isric.nl
FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY AND BIOMECHANICS OF TROPICAL PLANT GROWTH FORMS: ECOMECHANICAL ANALYSES FOR IDENTIFYING HABITAT BIODIVERSITY IN TROPICAL FORESTS
by T Speck and N P Rowe
Over the last 10 years we have developed a
methodological approach to quantitatively
analyse growth forms in extant and fossil
plants. Our concept is based on the
observation that mechanical properties of
plant stems may change during ontogeny. By
measuring changes of mechanical properties
in bending and torsion during ontogeny and
by analysing the underlying variations of stem
anatomy, it is possible to distinguish three
broadly defined groups of growth habits in
woody plants: (1) self-supporting shrubs and
trees, (2) non-self-supporting, climbing lianas
and (3) semi-self-supporting, scrambling
plants. Semi-self-supporting plants can best
be described as plants leaning against the
surrounding vegetation.
During a first phase we tried to describe
quantitatively and characterize different
growth habits, and to understand the
developmental mechanisms by which woody
plants with secondary growth change the
mechanical properties of their stems during
ontogeny. We are now concentrating on the
ecological significance of growth form, mode
of attachment, stem structure and
biomechanical properties and of the
ontogenetic variation of these characters. A
primary objective is for a better understanding
of the relevance of these characters for
habitat preference, niche occupation and
biodiversity in tropical rain forests. As recent
studies show, a species characterized by one
of these broad modes of behaviour may show
specific variations from the overall pattern of
mechanical and structural properties typical
for the given growth habit. For example, there
exist twining lianas that seem, at least partly
because of their mechanical stem properties,
to be specialised for the recolonisation of
small gaps caused by the fall of large tree
branches, whereas some semi-self-supporting
species, that become lianescent in older
ontogenetic stages, seem to be very effective
in colonising large clearings caused by the fall
of one or several large trees. The latter are
also effective in colonising man-made
clearings or fringes of the forest along newly
built streets in the rain forest (These projects
are financially supported by PROCOPE and
Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft Freiburg).
Friederike Gallenmüller, one of our
PhD-students, studies this behaviour in
different species of the genus Croton growing
sympatrically in the low land rain forest of
French Guyana. For this project we are
grateful for the help of ORSTOM de Cayenne
(Dr. Marie-France Prévost) and SILVOLAB
de Guyane, Kourou (Dr. Denis Girou and Dr.
Meriem Fournier), the project is financially
supported by Landesgraduiertenförderung
Baden-Württemberg, DAAD and PROCOPE).
A second project running in French Guyana
deals with the ontogenetic variation of
structural and mechanical properties of two
selected tree species of economical interest
(Eperua falcata and Vouacapoua americana)
and of primary hemi-epiphytic strangling figs.
One aim of this project that runs in
collaboration with Dr. Meriem Fournier, who
is also co-supervisor of our second
PhD-student, Karin Kilian, is to correlate the
architectural development of the tree species
and the strangling figs with wood structure
and properties. This is an ECOFOR-Project
at the European Tropical Large-Scale Facility
(LSF) SILVOLAB de Guyane, supported by
the European Union.
A last project, in Madagascar, is a
collaboration with Dr. Laure Civeyrel
(Laboratoire d'Ecologie Terrestre, Université
de Toulouse). We study the evolution of
different growth forms in the Secamonoideae,
a subfamily of the Asclepiadaceae, which has
some endemic species in Madagascar. Laure
Civeyrel has analysed the systematics of the
Madagascan Secamonoideae via
morphological studies and the plastid gene
matK. Her data show that at least four groups
of self-supporting shrubs have evolved
independently within a clade otherwise
represented by twining lianas. This is
interesting for several reasons: it allows us to
trace the evolution of self-supporting plants
from lianescent plants via the historical
perspective afforded by phylogenetic studies
and to test via functional and developmental
studies precisely which character trait
transitions are underlying the change in
growth form. Furthermore, with this group we
are able to investigate whether there exists a
degree of evolutionary burden associated with
the evolution of specialized climbing growth
forms which might constrain the secondary
appearance of self-supporting habits among
plant groups which become predominantly
lianescent.
References:
Speck, T. & Rowe, N.P. (1999): A quantitative
approach to analytically defining size, form and habit in
living and fossil plants. - In: A.R. Hemsley & M.
Kurmann (eds.), The Evolution of Plant Architecture:
447 - 479, Kew (Linnean Society London and Royal
Botanic Gardens Kew).
Chabbert, B., Monties, B., Rowe, N. P. & Speck, T.
(1997): Variability of lignin composition and lignification
pattern in the lianescent and self-supporting growth
phase of the liana Condylocarpon guianense. In: G.
Jeronimidis & J.F.V. Vincent (eds.), Plant
Biomechanics: Conference Proceedings I: 73 - 78,
Centre for Biomimetics, University of Reading.
Rowe, N.P. & Speck, T. (1996): Biomechanical
characteristics of the ontogeny and growth habit of the
tropical liana Condylocarpon guianense
(Apocynaceae). - International Journal of Plant
Science, 157: 406-417.
Speck, T. (1994): Bending stability of plant stems:
ontogenetical, ecological, and phylogenetical aspects.
Biomimetics 2: 109-128.
Speck, T. (1997): Ecobiomechanics - Biomechanical
analyses help to understand aut- and synecology of
plants. In: G. Jeronimidis & J.F.V. Vincent (eds.),
Plant Biomechanics: Conference Proceedings I: 9 -
16, Centre for Biomimetics, The University of
Reading.
Speck, T., Neinhuis, C., Gallenmüller, F. & Rowe,
N.P. (1997): Trees and shrubs in the mainly
lianescent genus Aristolochia s.l.: secondary evolution
of the self-supporting growth habit? - In: G.
Jeronimidis & J.F.V. Vincent (eds.), Plant
Biomechanics: Conference Proceedings I: 201 - 208,
Centre for Biomimetics, The University of Reading.
Speck, T., Rowe, N.P., Brüchert, F., Haberer, W., Gallenmüller, F. & Spatz, H.-Ch. (1996): How plants adjust the "material properties" of their stems according to differing mechanical constraints during growth - an example of smart design in nature. - In: A.E. Engin (ed.), Bioengineering. - PD-Volume 77, Proceedings of the 1996 Engineering Systems Design and Analysis Conference, Vo-lume 5, ASME 1996: 233 - 241.
For further information please contact:
top of page
Thomas Speck
Plant Biomechanics Group
Botanischer Garten
Universität Freiburg
Schänzlestr. 1
79104 Freiburg
Germany
Email:
speckth@uni-freiburg.de
Nick P. Rowe
Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution des
Plantes
Universite de Montpellier 2
Place Eugène Bataillon
34095 Montpellier
France
Email:
rowe@isem.univ-montp2.fr
GLOBAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND MOLECULAR RESPONSES TO CLIMATIC STRESSES OF THREE MEDITERRANEAN CONIFERS
by C Plomion
The focus of this project, which started in
September 1997, is to study the genetic,
physiological and molecular responses to
climatic stresses of three economically
important conifers of the Mediterranean basin
(Pinus pinaster, Pinus halepensis and brutia,
and Cedrus sp.). This project involves 6
countries, including France, Israel, Italy,
Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey, and is based
on a collaboration between quantitative,
population, and molecular geneticists, as well
as physiologists and molecular biologists.
The main objectives are:
1 To characterize the genetic variability in drought and frost response. The results will allow for testing of different seed varieties, optimal allocation of seeds sources to the afforestation programmes sites, as well as setting up core collections for conservation objectives based on consensus. The variability will be analyzed according to both adaptive traits and molecular markers (isozymes, RAPD, AFLP, SSR) in populations covering the range of ecological conditions encountered by the different species.
2 To investigate the ecophysiological and molecular mechanisms involved in drought response in order to define appropriate criteria allowing for early screening of tolerant genotypes in breeding programmes. Within this context, our research focuses on the determination of ecophysiological early tests for drought and frost tolerance (and/or avoidance), as well as the detection of proteins (boiling-stable drought-associated proteins) and DNA probes associated with response.
3. To ultimately use the gathered
information for application in afforestation,
breeding and gene conservation programmes.
These two kinds of advanced research
approaches are excellent opportunities for
scientific training and technology transfer. The
application of this research towards optimal
use of adapted seed sources and
conservation of the most valuable
populations will result in more sustainable
management of Mediterranean forest
resources. Such a project will contribute to
preventing expected disequilibrium conditions
as a result of global climatic change through
the selection of less water demanding forest
genotypes.
Activities
This project is based on:
Characterisation of the genetic diversity
involving phenotypic evaluation of adaptive
traits (growth, phenology, drought and cold
tolerance, disease and pest resistance)
through early tests in the nursery or
controlled chambers, as well as provenance
and progeny field tests with a common data
bank and integrated multi-site interpretation;
Molecular characterization of the genetic
diversity combining different aspects:
genetic geographic diversity of the entire distribution area of the species included in the study, and
evolution with time of the transferred
populations (Pinus halepensis, Pinus
pinaster) in response to a new and/or more
harsh habitat.
The project will use and compare different
methods of investigating neutral diversity
(isozymes, RAPD, nuclear and chloroplastic
SSR, AFLP). The evaluations conducted will
be compared with the patterns of variation
observed for the adaptive traits, to detect
linkage disequilibrium occurring between
quantitative traits and molecular markers.
Study of ecophysiological and molecular responses to drought
This section deals with the measurement of
different ecophysiological parameters that
can be used to define the mechanisms for
drought tolerance (water potential, leaf
conductance, transpiration rate, seed
germination on calibrated PEG solutions).
The study is extended to include the
molecular analysis of drought tolerance in
pine trees, through the identification of
drought-associated boiling-stable proteins and
water stress inducible genes. The sequencing
of the relevant proteins and cloning of the
corresponding genes will generate DNA
probes for the early selection of drought
resistant genotypes.
Expected Outcome
Scientific :
A joint analysis of genetic diversity,
combining variation in relevant multigenic
adaptive traits and, polymorphism of neutral
genes with a better understanding of the basic
mechanisms of frost and drought tolerance,
will improve information and techniques for
enhancing species selection and conserving
the forest genetic resources.
Technical :
Use of new and powerful molecular marking
methods, for evaluating genetic diversity,
early selection, and discriminant varietal
tests.
Pooling data on adaptive traits and molecular
marker diversity will allow for achieving
consensus on core collections, establishing a
scientific basis for gene conversation
programmes of Mediterranean conifers, and
the organization of dynamic ex situ gene
conservation procedures.
This research project is funded by the
European Union within the INCO-DC work
programme (ERBIC 18CT 970 200)
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For further information, please contact:
Dr Christopher Plomion
INRA, BP45
33610 Cestas, France
Tel : +33 5 57979076
Fax : +33 5 57979088
Email:
plomion@pierroton.inra.fr
EVALUATION AND UTILIZATION OF THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE MICROSYBIONTS OF CALLIANDRA CALOTHYRSUS
by D Leseuer
The main objectives of the project were to
optimize the forage production of Calliandra
calothyrsus in small farms by inoculating
them with highly efficient strains of rhizobia
and/or arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
selected in the laboratory and greenhouse, or
under field conditions. To achieve this, it was
first necessary to investigate the main
symbiotic characteristics of C. calothyrsus,
evaluate a range of potential inocula, and
produce a suitable microbial inoculum for
plants under field conditions.
Activity was thus concentrated in two main
areas: (i) Collection of microsymbionts of C.
calothyrsus. The project will establish a large
collection of rhizobia and mycorrhiza isolated
from nodules and roots respectively of this
species when harvested in its native range,
and in those humid countries where it has
been introduced with success. After
evaluation of the biodiversity within the
collection of microsymbionts, a symbiotic
screening will be carried out in the laboratory
and under greenhouse conditions to select
the most efficient strains for inoculation
under field conditions. (ii) Field inoculation of
C. calothyrsus. Existing methodologies for
producing rhizobial inoculum and inoculating
plants in the field will be developed further
for inoculation at field stations, and finally,
under farm conditions.
Samples of soils and nodules were collected
in the places where future field experiments
with C. calothyrsus will be set up by the
project. In Cameroon, Kenya, Mexico,
Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
and New Caledonia, 33 sites were sampled.
One part of each soil sample was sent to ITE
for the mycorrhizal work, and the other, with
nodules, sent to CIRAD-Forêt in Senegal for
rhizobia work. The isolation of rhizobia and
their preliminary characterization (Rhizobium
genus) was carried out by KEFRI.
From soil samples, ITE has established 'trap'
cultures using C. calothyrsus, sorghum, millet
and cowpea as host plants to bait out the AM
fungi present in the soils. AM fungal species
that occurred most frequently were Gigaspora
albida, Glomus etunicatum, Scutellospora
heterogama, Scutellospora verrucosa and
Acaulospora scrobiculata.
A nursery trapping experiment was carried out
with Rhizobium nodules using seed C.
calothyrsus. After 2 mo of culture, young fresh
nodules were observed and harvested. It was
possible to isolate the rhizobia in these
nodules and to obtain a pure culture for each
of them. In this way, 242 rhizobium strains
have been isolated. A large majority of them
(219) are part of the genus Rhizobium, fast-growing rhizobia, with only 23 strains of the
genus Bradyrhizobium, slow-growing
rhizobia. All strains were then tested in a
greenhouse inoculation experiment with C.
calothyrsus. Plants were first cultivated in a
sand mixture totally deprived in rhizobia, and
then the plants were inoculated with a
Rhizobium strain. 97% of these isolated
strains were able to nodulate with C.
calothyrsus. Some strains formed more
nodules than the rest of the strains (11 and
24%). This is a first indicator of a real genetic
diversity within this collection of rhizobia.
Molecular DNA work is being conducted on
the Rhizobium strains by Leena Räsänen at
the Department of Applied Chemistry and
Microbiology of the University of Helsinki.
CIRAD-Forêt have assessed the effect of
important factors on nodulation and nitrogen
fixation in C. calothyrsus. Provenance of the
host plant, soils characteristics and
defoliation can significantly modify the
success of the inoculation and the efficiency
of the symbiosis. Further experiments under
field conditions will be important to take these
factors into consideration, especially with
regard to the choice of the rhizobial strains
for inoculation.. AM fungi root length
infections ranged from 4 to 64 %. Mycorrhizal
inoculation of C. calothyrsus seedlings with
Glomus intraradices showed that leaf, stem,
root and nodule dry mass, stem diameter and
leaf area were all increased by mycorrhizal
inoculation at the lower P concentrations (0 -
7.5 ppm P). However, increasing the
application of P reduced mycorrhizal infection
and diminished or eliminated the beneficial
effects. A screening experiment testing 19
different mycorrhizal inocula is now in
progress.
Lastly, to provide seed of C. calothyrsus,
seed orchards have been established in
Cameroon and Kenya. In Senegal, CIRAD-Forêt also set up several small seed
production areas at the Bel Air Research
Centre.
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For further information please contact:
Didier Lesueur, Co-ordinator of the project
Programme Arbres et Plantations du CIRAD-Forêt
Laboratoire de Microbiologie des Sols
IRD Bel Air, BP 1386
Dakar, Sénégal
Tel : + 221 849 3320
Fax : +221 832 1675
Email:
didier.lesueur@cirad.fr
ASSESSMENT OF LEVELS AND DYNAMICS OF INTRA-SPECIFIC GENETIC DIVERSITY OF TROPICAL TREES FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
by J Wilson
This project is funded by the INCO
programme of EU DG XII, (contract no.
ERBIC18CT970149). The project is
coordinated by the UK Institute of Terrestrial
Ecology, and is in collaboration with Centro
Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y
Enseñanza (CATIE) Costa Rica, Institut
National de la Recherche Agronomique
(INRA) France, Guadeloupe and Guiana,
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, Vlaams Interuniversitair Instituut voor
Biotechnologie (VIB) Belgium, and the
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia,
Brazil.
The project applies new molecular techniques to studies of intraspecific diversity in a range of tropical tree species. The main objectives are:
The project focuses on the following tree species:
The key activities are:
Progress:
Most of the field collection work has been
completed, lab studies and data analysis are
ongoing. Further information can be obtained
from the project website at
http://www.nbu.ac.uk/inco, or contact:
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Dr Julia Wilson
Head, Tropical Forests Section
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology
Bush Estate
Penicuik, MidlothianEH26 0QB
Scotland, UK
Tel: +44 131 445 4343,Fax: +44 131 445 3943
Email:
jwi@ceh.ac.uk