Sustainable forest management is usually defined as the process of managing permanent forest land to achieve one or more clearly specified productive and/or ecological management objectives without undue reduction of its inherent values and future productivity and without undesirable effects on the physical and social environment. Sustainable forest management should thus guarantee the continuity of all recognised principal functions of a particular forest, without undue effect to other (global) functions.
This definition illustrates that the current development of sustainable forest management pays specific attention to the maintenance of forest functions (products & environmental services). Although it is recognised that various types of forests may be present, the types of forests to be considered are not further specified. In developing criteria for sustainable forest management, two types of forest are normally considered, i.e. natural forests and timber plantations. This distinction reflects that forests can be conceived either as a basically natural ecosystem or as a man-made agroecosystem.
Recent research has demonstrated that in addition to man-made timber plantations, a large variety of other man-made forest types are present in tropical countries. These forests have gradually developed as a result of an evolutionary continuum in interactions between local communities and forests (Wiersum, 1997). During this evolution a process of co-domestication of forests and tree species took place (Table 1). Most of these human-created forest types have until now scarcely been acknowledged by forest science. As illustrated by a recent book on the nature of forests in the West African forest-savanna edge (Fairhead & Leach, 1996), the origin of such man-made forests is often not recognised and ecologists and foresters have often ignored positive human influences on forest composition. The usual perception is that local communities are either destroyers of forests (by necessity or ignorance) or conservers of ancestral forest lands. The option that they may also be active manipulators of forests is not usually considered. Little attention has been given to the possibility that local communities have enriched forests with tree species valued by them or even reconstructed forests to suit their needs for specific forest resources, while maintaining many of the characteristics of natural forests in respect to structure and biodiversity. In many cases, such manipulations are not directed at timber species, but rather at fruit species or species providing commercial non-timber forest products.
At present many of these indigenously-developed forest types have mainly local significance; some also play an important role in the commercial production of non-timber forest products (De Foresta & Michon, 1997). For instance, in Indonesia the majority of rubber is produced in "jungle rubber" gardens. It can be expected that in the future these forest types will become increasingly important. As indicated by the example of rubber, many of the indigenously-developed forest types are eminently suited to the production of non-timber forest products and with the growing attention to such production, their role is likely to increase. Moreover, with the decreasing area of natural forests subject to timber logging, also the relevance of these forests for timber production will likely increase. Already now it can be observed in a country such as the Philippines that timber sales from tree species such as coconut, rubber and Jackfruit, which are often grown in forest gardens or mixed-species village plantations is rapidly increasing. In contrast to commercial tree estates these indigenously-developed domesticated forests are characterized by a mixed-species composition. They often play an important role in biodiversity conservation, eg with respect to the preservation of a wide variety of genotypes of locally-valued tree species. These forest gardens illustrate the local relevance of biodiversity.
It is generally agreed that one of the criteria for sustainable forest management should be that the forest-related needs of local communities are taken into account and that they can be actively involved in managing forests. As indicated by the presence of the various types of indigenously-developed forests, these criteria should be extended to include the notion that forest management by local communities may result in the development of various types of modified or reconstructed forests, which to an important degree ecologically resemble natural forests. These forests are not static, but gradually evolve in response to changes in production factors, institutional and marketing conditions, and changing relations between forests and other land-use systems. Although many of such smallholder forests are not located on officially designated permanent forest lands, they can still be considered as being sustainably managed.
In order to obtain a better scientific understanding of the relations between local communities and forest environment, and the various indigenous methods of forest management, the Forestry Department of Wageningen Agricultural University is carrying out a research programme on "Community forestry development and rural transformations in tropical countries". This research focuses on the identification of different types of indigenously-developed forests and of the various factors which influence both their dynamics and sustainability. The basic premise underlying the research is that to understand the full scope of human effects on forests, people should not be conceived as an unnatural external factor to forests, but rather as a highly specialized ecological agent acting within the forest. People may have either positive or negative influences on the forests; these influences are time and location dependent. It is expected that this research programme will provide fundamental information to raise awareness on the need to operationalize the term sustainable forest management not only with respect to timber production from professionally managed production forest estates but also with respect to the wide variety of indigenously-developed forest types. This means that the concept of sustainable forest management should incorporate the notion that not only the ecological integrity and social functions of forests should be maintained, but also the indigenous ingenuity and creativity in conserving, enriching or even reconstructing forests.
References
For more information please contact:
K. F. Wiersum, Department of Forestry
Wageningen Agricultural University
PO Box 342, 6700 AH Wageningen,The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317 484426, Fax: +31 317 483542
E-mail: Freerk.Wiersum@bhhk.bosb.wau.nl
CIFOR's research on secondary forests
by Cesar Sabogal, Joyotee Smith, Dean Current and Manuel Guariguata
One of the main focus areas for CIFOR is on issues which are critical for improving the perception and understanding of the sustainable use of tropical forests by society in general and by local communities at the forest margin in particular. Secondary forests which regenerate on land where primary forest has been cleared for agricultural purposes, are an increasingly important component in land-use dynamics of forested areas under agricultural pressure. They provide a wide range of traditional and potential roles for alleviating poverty and contributing to environmental conservation. Research on tropical secondary forests is timely in the context of current international concerns for sustainable development.
The management potential of secondary forests
Within the generally pessimistic scenarios about tropical deforestation, one optimistic development is that
the areas in secondary forests appears to be increasing, particularly in Latin America. The importance of
secondary forests in generating incomes for the small farmer and environmental benefits for society as a
whole is growing. It has already been demonstrated that the productivity of secondary forests can be
increased through management practices (e.g. Brown and Lugo1; Finegan 19922). These findings have lead to the hypothesis that secondary forests may be able to partially compensate for some of the economic and
ecological services originally provided by primary forests.Further policy and technological interventions may
be able to increase the value of secondary forests to farmers and thus induce them to increase the area in
secondary forests and/or delay its re-conversion to other uses (Smith et al. in press3). A multi-disciplinary
team in CIFOR is investigating this hypothesis together with the Tropical Agricultural Centre for Research
and Higher Education (CATIE) and partners from national research systems in three Latin American
countries (Peru, Brazil and Nicaragua). The research is partially funded by grants from the Inter American
Development Bank and recently from the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation (AECI).
Main research objectives are:
Specific objectives are:
(a) to provide baseline information on the current status of secondary forests;
(b) a better understanding of the dynamics of forest conversion;
(c) to determine most appropriate silvicultural options and those options for institutional and policy reform;
(d) to develop local capacity, both for research and operational forest management with sustainability
criteria.
During the current first phase of the research, baseline studies on biophysical, socio-cultural, economic and policy aspects which may have an impact on the productivity and the management potential of secondary forests are being carried out in the selected sites. A number of small to medium scale farmers will be selected following a set of defined criteria. Permanent plots will be established on their land for long-term biophysical research. Technologies and candidate species and products with potential for generating economic and environmental benefits will be identified. Other studies include market surveys for secondary forest products. Financial analyses on the profitability of secondary forest management compared to alternative land-use systems are also being considered. These studies will focus on the profitability and benefits from the point of view of resource-poor farmers.
In a second phase the research will concentrate on the problems and constraints to the technical/operational, administrative, economic, socio-cultural and biophysical aspects which impede the sustainable management of secondary forests, and identify interventions at the level of policies and incentives which may contribute to overcome them. The inter-disciplinary research team will develop bio-economic models to study how changes in biophysical, socio-cutural, economic and policy factors influence the profitability and potential for adopting management practices in secondary forests by small farmers in the forest margin. The feasibility of paying farmers for the environmental services they contribute to society by adopting sustainable management practices in secondary forests will also be considered.
Related research activities
Silvicultural interventions in young secondary forests. This activity focuses on evaluating the effects of silviculture on enhancing forest productivity for timber in small farms, and its impact on plant community biodiversity in young secondary forest stands in Costa Rica. By examining target tree species with wide geographical range and ecological uniformity throughout the lowland humid neotropics, this research has clear potential for applications which may be generalised at the regional level. Compared to older successional stages, young stands are attractive to silvicultural manipulations due to the manageable size of the vegetation, and anticipated growth responsiveness of selected tree species. The initial phase of the activity consisted of site identification, detailed inventories, and design of the silvicultural treatment in a pilot experimental area (4-year old secondary forests stand). A thinning operation was executed in mid 1996 after one year of obtaining baseline information on stand dynamics. Currently, inventories are being made of stands with similar age but different floristic composition to obtain additional species-specific information on target timber species. Stand inventories in additional sites are currently underway and application of silvicultural treatments will follow. This sub-activity will be replicated during 1998 in the Peruvian Amazon and Nicaragua. The research is being conducted in collaboration with CATIE.
Management of logged-over and second growth forests in the humid Tropics. A Review and annotated bibliography with emphasis on silviculture. The main output of this activity will be a book focusing on forests which have been extensively modified through human activities or natural events, i.e. including logged-over forests. The comparison among the three major tropical regions should look for common features and differences between the regions/eco-regions regarding the biophysical, socio-economic and policy dimensions of secondary forest management. CIFOR is currently exploring possibilities to collaborate with related initiatives by international and regional organizations.
A conceptual framework (Smith et al. in press3) for identifying appropriate policy and technological interventions to increase the value of secondary forests was recently presented at an international workshop on the potential for secondary forests management in Pucallpa, Peru. The paper developed hypotheses on how the area and characteristics of Secondary forests are expected to change as frontier areas in the forest margins develop over time. It also proposed the types of technologies likely to be adopted and policy interventions required to improve adoption.
1 Brown, S. and A. Lugo. 1990. Tropical secondary forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 6: 1-32.
2 Finegan, B. 1992. The management potential of neotropical secondary lowland rain forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 47: 295-321.
3 Smith, J.; C. Sabogal; W. de Jong and D. Kaimowitz. (in press). Bosques secundarios como recurso para el desarrollo rural y la conservación ambiental en los trópicos de América Latina. In: Memorias del Taller Internacional sobre el estado, el potencial de manejo y de desarrollo de los bosques tropicales secundarios en América Latina Pucallpa, Perú. 2-7 de junio de 1997.
For more information please contact:
Cesar Sabogal
Senior Scientist, Natural Forest Management
CIFOR
PO Box 6596, JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia
Tel: +62 251 622622; Fax: +62 251 622100
E-mail: c.sabogal@cgnet.com
We close the twentieth century much in the way we began it: reiterating a consensus that sustainability continues to be the single most important principle to guide forest management. Perhaps one of the most important lessons learnt in trying to achieve sustainable forest management in tropical forests has been the recognition that there is no such thing as a universal management prescription, even in a regional context. Furthermore initial achievements of a management system are not a guarantee of later success. Our perception of what constitutes sustainable forest management has changed over the course of the century, expanding it now to encompass both social sustainability and the maintenance of biodiversity. We must recognise that as human society develops so will its understanding of what constitutes sustainability. We are thus faced with a moving target.
The first step is to recognise the need for sustainable management of natural resources to follow an adaptive management philosophy that embraces the attributes of persistence, change and unpredictability (Holling and Meffe, 1996). Thus management will need to continuously challenge and evaluate its own hypotheses. This implies feedback among planning, implementation, control and results (or impacts) related to social, economic, and ecological issues. Relevant, up to date information is one of the cornerstones for the success of an adaptive management system. As the value of information lies in the way it is organised (Larsen in Rauscher and Hacker, 1989), criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management (C&I) are the tools which can be used to organise information in a manner
useful to conceptualise, evaluate and implement sustainable forest management. Thus, criteria and indicators are tools to pin down the target of sustainable forest management, without loss of its inherently dynamic character.
Phase 1: August 1994-July 1996
CIFOR's focus has been on developing criteria and indicators at the forest management unit (FMU) level. Based on field evaluations of 1,100 Criteria & Indicators in FMUs in Indonesia, Côte d'Ivoire, and Brazil during the first phase of the project we were able to identify a set of C&I held in common among the sites (Prabhu et al. 1996). Additional Phase 1 tests took place in Germany and Austria. We have since also completed a test in Cameroon. One important result was the establishment of the more inherently site-specific nature of social C&I compared to ecological or production systems C&I. We also identified a range of issues which need to be addressed through further research.
These included:
Phase 2 - August 1996-July 1998
The aim of the second phase1, is to deliver a tool-box for the development of C&I. During the first phase it became clear to us that if our efforts were to be useful, then they must be directed towards enabling national initiatives to develop C&I sets that were not only locally relevant but scientifically sound and internationally compatible. The only way to satisfy what we anticipated would be very diverse needs for help,would be to provide the basic tools necessary for C&I development. We envisage the tool-box as initially containing all the tools necessary for C&I development. At later stages it could also be expanded to contain the tools necessary for C&I application.
The tool-box will contain tools for most of the following needs:
Using C&I for management decision making, with consideration to problems of scale. We have taken exploratory steps towards developing a Knowledge Based System or Expert System based on C&I for this purpose.
Our primary target group for the tool-box in Phase 2 are the developers of C&I for the assessment of sustainable forest management at the FMU level. These can be national agencies involved in the C&I development process, certification groups etc. Secondary targets include developers of C&I at levels other than that of the FMU and forest managers and policy makers with interest in FMU level. We must ensure that it is both generic and practicable, that it is user friendly for as broad a group as is feasible, and that it is scientifically sound, without being of academic interest only.
1Some activities have a completion date in January 1999.
2It would also not be possible to carry out an effective assessment of sustainable forest management without this information.
Literature Further information is available at:
by Esther Blom
In January 1997, the Tropenbos Foundation published the document 'Hierarchical framework for the
formulation of sustainable management standards'. The document provides a manual for the development of
hierarchically consistent standards and a guideline for the formulation of principles, criteria and indicators for
sustainable forest management (C&I). The document was written to provide practical backup to the different
processes directed at the development of C&I.
After the theoretical exercise, the ideas were put into practice in the following ways. First of all, Tropenbos gave
assistance to the improvement and completion of the standard (set of C&I) developed by the Dutch Working
Group on Sustainable Forest Management (DBB). The Tropenbos Hierarchical Framework showed that the
consistency of the DBB set could be further improved. In addition, the C&I were too abstract for use in
practice. For this reason, Professor Stortenbeker, Chairman of the DBB, approached the Tropenbos Foundation
requesting assistance in revising the existing set. A forestry student provides additional support by comparing
several existing standards, to identify gaps and inconsistencies in the DBB set.
In March of this year, Esther Blom, co-author of the document, visited the Centre of International Forestry
Research (CIFOR) in Bogor, Indonesia. CIFOR has conducted various field tests in tropical rain forest
countries, to assess several sets of C&I. The author used the information from the last test, which was conducted
at the Tropenbos-Cameroon site, to complement and improve the DBB set. She also made a study of the setup
of the CIFOR C&I tests, resulting in various recommendations which will be processed in the CIFOR report
of the Cameroon test. Furthermore, the author attended meetings of the International Project Advisory Panel
(IPAP) and the Scientific Support Group (SGG) of the CIFOR C&I project, presenting the Tropenbos Hierarchical Framework and discussing it with its members.
Erik Lammerts van Bueren visited the 22nd session of the International Tropical Timber Council (ITTO), which
took place from May 21-29, 1997 in Bolivia. Here too, the Tropenbos Hierarchical Framework was received
with great interest. Representatives from Colombia, Gabon and Malaysia in particular considered the
framework to be of use in the development of their countries' standards.
The Tropenbos Foundation is planning to continue its work on C&I in the future. It will deepen its insight into
theoretical guidelines for the development of C&I and continue to support countries and organizations in the
development of their own sets of C&I.
For further information please contact:
The Institute for World Forestry at the Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products is currently
preparing a research project on the history of tropical silviculture. The project aims at highlighting the major
geographical and possibye eco-regional differences of silvicultural systems proposed and/or implemented in
the humid tropics from the late 19th century onwards. It pays special attention to systems that were worked out
and proposed up to around 1950.
As a first step the Institute of World Forestry started an intensive literature study to identify specific silvicultural
systems in various tropical countries. Also, several international research institutions have been asked to
contribute their experience and for cooperation in this field of research.
For further information please contact:
Management of dense tropical rainforests in Africa Prompted by the FORAFRI project, CIRAD-Forêt has capitalized on the results of research in dense tropical
rainforests in Africa. This 3 year project started in 1995. It is financed by the FAC (French Ministry of
Cooperation), and is realized in collaboration with CIFOR.
This project intends to improve sustainable management of dense tropical rainforests in Africa. It concerns five
countries: Gabon, Cameroon, Congo, Republic of Central Africa and Ivory Coast. This project fits in a context
of regional cooperation which it aims to further develop and strengthen. A similar project, directly led by
CIFOR exists for the 'Anglophone countries' (Nigeria, Ghana, West-Cameroon and Liberia).
The FORAFRI project pays attention to different subjects such as: Thus, one of the principal objectives of FORAFRI is to capitalize on the available results of research
developments and to make them available to the users.Within the context of the project, the subject
'capitalization and syntheses' has been entrusted to CIRAD-Forêt's charge.. This stage of the FORAFRI project
started with a workshop held at Bangui from 6 to 11 May 1996. Within this context, in 1997, different articles
have been published in the journal 'Bois et Forêts des Tropiques' edited by CIRAD: In the Ivory Coast, the effect of the two types of thinning has been evaluated in evergreen and semi-deciduous
forests (2). Thus elementary data are available on the regeneration rate of these dense forests. Indications on
the productivity and silviculture of these forests are also given. The composition and dynamics of natural
regeneration(stems of one to 10cm diameter) have also been studied in different contexts: thinning operations,
logging, burning (3). Elementary silvicultural prescriptions have been recommended to favour this natural
regeneration. In Cameroon, particular attention has been paid to the study of diametric structures of forest stands to be
exploited for timber (4). Within the framework of sustainable management a compromise between diametric
structure, exploitation diameter and rotation periods has been recommended.
A synthesis article (5) compares the available results of the different research efforts in which CIRAD-Forest
has participated since 1974. The reactions of the forest stands to silvicultural interventions has been broadly
outlined. The integration of local populations in the management of forests has been developed following a Cameroonian
example (6). The study on the rights they exercise or intend to exercise on the natural resources has been
introduced. The authors share with us their reflections on the management methods in Francophone Africa.
They recommend combining, organising and coordinating the different uses of an ecosystem rather than to
aim at specialising the use of specific partitioned areas.
Other studies, useful to forest management, are ongoing in different fields (inventories, biometry, silviculture,
exploitation, forest techniques, forest politics). The combination of these synthesis studies makes it possible
to lay the foundation of sustainable management of African production forests. The first results are at the users'
disposal.
For further information please contact:
http://www.cgiar.org/cifor/research/c_and_i.html
and also from:
Dr Ravi Prabhu
CIFOR, PO Box 6596, JKPWB
Jakarta 10065, Indonesia
Tel: +62 251 622 622, Fax: +62 251 622 100
E-mail: r.prabhu@cgnet.com
Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management
Esther Blom, Programme Assistant
The Tropenbos Foundation
PO Box 232, 6700 AE Wageningen
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 317 426262, Fax: +31 317 423024
E-mail: tropenbos@iac.agro.nl
Lessons to be learned from the history of tropical silviculture
by C Mueller-Edzards and J Heuveldop
Institute for World Forestry
Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products
Leuschnerstrasse 91
21031 Hamburg, Germany
Tel: +40 739 62 129, Fax: +40 739 62 480
E-mail: heuveldop@aixh0001.holz.uni-hamburg.de or medzards@aixh0101.holz.uni-hamburg.de
In Gabon, studies on Okoumé stand dynamics in the coastal zone have enabled the formulation of methods to
regenerate these stands on the border of large forest areas.
The results have been compared to those obtained in forest formations in central Gabon.
Bernard Dupuy
CIRAD Forêt, BP 5035
34032 Montpellier Cedex 1, France
Tel: +33 4 67 59 37 69, Fax: +33 4 67 59 37 33
E-mail: dupuy@hpbaill.cirad.fr