ETFRN NEWS 19

Tropenbos New Host of ETFRN Coordination Unit

As from January, 1997, the Tropenbos Foundation in Wageningen, the Netherlands, will host the Coordinating Unit of the European Tropical Forest Research Network (ETFRN) for the period 1997-1999.

The Tropenbos Foundation was established in 1988 in order to continue and expand the international Tropenbos programme, originally set up by the Government of the Netherlands in 1986. It is an internationally oriented organization which formulates, organizes and finances objective-oriented research and development programmes to support conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of tropical rain forests. In close cooperation with research institutions and governments in a number of tropical countries, several major research sites have been established where interdisciplinary programmes have been set up, to produce results which have relevance for application on local as well as on a broader scale. Permanent research plots have been established for ecological research. Extension, training and institutions building are important elements in the international and national Tropenbos programmes. The effectiveness of the Tropenbos programme can be seen in its impact on forest policy, land-use planning, forest management and institutional capacity. Seminars, dialogues, publications and special courses ensure the wide transfer of knowledge and recommendations to target groups such as policy makers and forest users.

To cover the full scope of topics related to conservation and wise use of tropical rain forests, the Tropenbos programme has four main objectives. Each country programme focuses on one of them, without excluding other themes.

* Land-use planning, including the development and implementation of a strategy for conserving biodiversity and indigenous natural resource management (Colombia)

* Biodiversity conservation in protected areas, including the development of sustainable lands uses in buffer zones (Côte d'Ivoire)

* Sustainable production of forest products, aimed at designing forest management systems for the sustainable production of timber, non-timber forest products and services (Cameroon and Guyana)

* Restoration and use of degraded forest, with a focus on plant production techniques, the development of criteria and guidelines for the sustainable management of mixed Dipterocarp forests, and reintroduction programmes for orang utans (Indonesia)

In addition, Tropenbos develops research strategies for themes like biodiversity and non-timber forest products.

PRO SILVA or Managing Diversity

silviculture that focuses more on the management of ecosystems than on the adherence to norms

The following article has been translated into English and was first published in "Bois et Forêts des Tropiques", Issue N°250 - 4th Quarter 1996. The authors are François Grison and Vincent Favrichon (CIRAD-Forêt).

Pro Silva Europe and Pro Silva France

After a meeting which took place from 18 to 22 September 1989 in Slovenia a group of foresters from 10 European countries established a European union of foresters interested in natural forest management concepts. This union has been called Pro Silva. Pro Silva's first European Congress was held in Besançon from 21 to 24 June 1993.

Pro Silva consists of national and regional associations and individuals from 22 European countries. Pro Silva France comprises about 350 members and is managed by a council of 20 members which meets two or three times a year and that organizes a general assembly annually. For further information see addresses given at the end of the article.

A brief description of Pro Silva's silvicultural concept

Pro Silva's approach takes account of the processes in growth, competition, regeneration or stress resistance which occur in natural forests. By guiding these processes with careful silvicultural interventions, Pro Silva seeks to uphold all the diverse functions of the forest, its diversity and ecological character.

Preference is given to mixed stands where the "education" of individual trees plays an important role. The individual tree remains within the stand as long as it serves protection or production purposes. Wherever possible, reduced impact logging is preferred to clear cutting and natural regeneration under canopy to artificial regeneration. The introduction of non-authochtone species is not excluded but those species have to be well adapted to the site factors. Thinning frequency is high, i.e. every 5-10 years 10 - 20% of the standing volume are extracted. These interventions concentrate on improving those "elite trees" with expected high value increment. They also aim at structuring even-aged stands in their diversity (mixture of species and vertical structure). Without clear-cutting, the final exploitation concentrates on single trees which have reached their maturity (defined through the expected mid-diameter taking into account vitality and value increment). The benefit is two-fold: The growing stock of these stands concentrates on trees with a big diameter and high quality timber. Moreover, such multi-storied stands with a mixture of age-classes and species show a high stability against biological or non-biological calamities.

Pro Silva and tropical forestry

In its ecological approach to heterogenous stands Pro Silva states, as tropical foresters do, that the natural disturbance of windthrow is a fundamental phenomenon which causes a cyclical dynamic resulting in a mosaic character of the forest in conjunction with a ecological succession of species with different needs.

Pro Silva generally regards forests as complexe systems in which many interactive processes give rise to globally stable and locally unpredictable dynamics necessary for the self-regulating mechanisms. This also applies to to tropical forests.

Heterogeneity of natural tropical forests: Since generations many European forests have been managed as uniform coppice stands or high forests. Silvicultural transition following Pro Silva's approach results in more heterogeneity of stands because each tree is treated individually with respect to its potential and its ecological function. This heterogeneity is one of the characteristics of natural tropical forests which have rarely been converted into homogeneous forests. Pro Silva's approach may also be appropriate to many tropical forests. Analysis techniques for these heterogeneous stands are also similar, for example forest site determinations or increment studies by means of inventories. The analysis of the nature of species, of the phenomena of competition and of the architectural structure may allow fruitful exchanges.

Diameters for exploitation: Pro Silva's approach may lead to maintain certain trees for too long until they have passed their technical or economical exploitation optimum by far unless precise objectives are determined. However, this reproach could also be made to silviculture of uniform stands depending on how the aims of the forester are defined. This question is also of relevance to tropical forests under management and also requires a new definition of diameters.

However, in both cases the sustainable management is based on the balance of the forest and the sustained yield. Interventions of low intensity in short time intervals could be, according to PRO SILVA, a means to achieve this aim.

The difficulty of economic calculation: By giving priority to diameter of trees over tree age Pro Silva's approach integrates the time factor in a different way. This requires adequate economic considerations. Tropical foresters are confronted with the same kind of difficulties in natural, mixed forests.

The management of ecosystems: PRO SILVA'S approach to forest management differs from the management of homogeneous forest sectors. Current efforts in tropical forest management are leading to a reorientation of management of heterogeneous forests of unknown age in order to maintain biodiversity and complexity.

The opposite roles of forest management, a guiding tool or a means of control a posteriori, and of silviculture, immediate action, could therefore be a subject of intense discussion.

Making better use of expertise: Pro Silva's approach can be implemented in European countries with a long forestry tradition and forestry services that dispose of adequate and qualified staff. In most of the tropical countries forestry services do not have the necessary staff and qualification to carry out these tasks. However, have we asked the right question? There are in many countries traditional methods of forest management which could be applied by the forest communities if there were given some incentives or if they had empiric knowledge of the forest to be exploited. The crucial question may be who can be entrusted with forest management and who will profit from the forest.

Using traditional knowledge: The other aspect of the question concerns the necessary knowledge. An obvious prerequisite for Pro Silva's approach is that the forester needs to have broad knowledge of local traditions, sites and species. It is necessary to remember traditional knowledge of tropical forests in order to apply it directly or to transfer it to others.

There is a general need or challenge to elaborate concepts and to formalize processes. So, how can we create an information network ? How can we define criteria for measurement ? Which parapets are necessary to preserve silviculture from overexploitation ? How can we maintain a well-balanced diversity of species ? These are some of the questions Pro Silva and the tropical foresters are confronted with.

For further information please contact:

Pro Silva France, Secrétaire général, Marc Verdier, 46 rue Fontaine, F-75009 Paris, Pro Silva Europe, Truttenhausen, F-67140 Barr

The German Contact Office for Tropical Coastal Research (Deutsche Kontaktstelle fur Tropische Küstenforschung) was founded in 1995 to promote communication and cooperation at the national and international level between scientists and institutions, whose activities are related to the ecology and management of tropical marine and coastal environments. Its main goal is to encourage and facilitate the implementation of interdisciplinary and multi-national projects. The Contact Office, located at the Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) in Bremen, is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research and Technology (BMBF).

Information is compiled by a questionnaire, gathered from the Internet and collected from other sources about persons, institutions and projects, whose research activities are related to tropical coastal zones. TROPICOAST is the name for the database and information system used by the Contact Office to store, organize and disseminate all information. Part of the information, like a list of upcoming conferences, is made available on the WWW Home Page of the Contact Office.

The Contact Office upon request arranges contacts between scientists, searches

for all information concerning ICZM, offers support for organizing workshops related to ICZM and helps to identify funding sources for cooperative projects. This non-profit service is rendered to universities and other public research institutes, inter- and non-governmental organizations, consulting enterprises as well as representatives of public media.

If you wish to be included in TROPICOAST, please ask for the questionnaire or fill out the form via the Internet.

Contact Address:

German Contact Office for Tropical Coastal Research, Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstrasse 1, D-28359 Bremen, Germany
Tel.:+49-421-22 08 326, Fax +49-421-22 08 330, E-Mail: kontaktstelle@zmt.uni-bremen.de, Homepage: http://www.zmt.uni-bremen.de 

see also in this issue: "Mangrove Dynamics and Management (MADAM)" - A joint German/Brazilian project on mangrove research"

CIFOR is the newest of the CGIAR Centers, established in 1993 with the aim to address the needs of forest conservation and management in developing countries. As the Director General, Jeffrey Sayer, and the Chairman of CIFOR's Board of Trustees, Bo Bengtsson, describe in their foreword, the need to establish a Center like CIFOR arose from the perception that "forest science was unable to service the new roles and answer the new problems" of forestry in developing countries which had changed substantially since the 1960s. There was no model for CIFOR to draw on and many research needs which CIFOR wished to meet had not been dealt with previously.

Now, after three years of operation, CIFOR's strategies are backed by the experiences made so far and its collaboration with research partners.

Along with international changes in the social recognition of the many diverse values of forests and the transition from seeing forests merely as an exploitable source of raw material in the sense of hardwood, CIFOR's strategic research priorities and projects are focusing on research with a holistic, inter-disciplinary approach. In this respect, the growing demand for a "new forestry", including research, has to be based on a more comprehensive view of the forest ecosystems and make a turn towards the original beneficiaries of forestry and forest research, which in developing countries are by majority forest communities and the rural poor.

CIFOR's strategic research is focused on policy issues to enable more informed, productive, sustainable and equitable decisions about the management and use of forests. CIFOR will give priority to research at seven focal ecological regions:

• the tropical moist forests in Central-West Africa and the Congo
• the drier forests (e.g. Miombo woodlands) of eastern and southern Africa
• the rainforest-dry forest continuum in southern India (such as the western Ghats)
• the tropical moist forests in insular South-East Asia (e.g. Borneo)
• the uplands of mainland South-East Asia
• the tropical moist forests of the western Amazon
• the mixed forest systems of Central America

Three of these regions, situated in the heart of the three major tropical moist forest regions - the Amazon, Central and West Africa and insular South-East Asia - were selected primarily on grounds of their scale, ecological and biodiversity significance, and rates of clearance. The other four sites are also of high ecological and biodiversity significance, but even more importantly, provide livelihoods to millions of people.The possibility of extending the research programme into dry areas, such as the Sudano-Sahelian woodlands, the Horn of Africa or north-eastern Brazil, will be re-assessed in CIFOR's next Medium-term Plan.

After extensive consultation with NARS (National Agricultural Research Systems) and prospective partners, CIFOR has selected a number of priority research projects. A detailed description of these research activities with reference to the research needs, objectives, approach, outputs and expected impacts is given in CIFOR's strategy publication. The ten priority research projects for the period 1996-2000 are:

• Underlying Causes of Deforestation, Forest Degradation and Poverty in Forest Margins
• Forest Ecosystem Management
• Multiple Resource Management of Natural Forests
• Assessing the Sustainability of Forest Management: Testing Criteria and Indicators
• Plantation Forestry on Degraded or Low-potential Sites
• Conservation of Biodiversity and Genetic Resources
• Local Livelihoods, Community-based Management and Devolution
• Sustainable Use and Development of Non-timber Forest Products
• Research Impact, Information and Capacity Building
• Policies, Technologies and Global Changes

These projects encompass all research and related activities. High priority is given to the development of a rigorous system for the planning and management of cost-effect research activities within these projects. As a prerequisite research has to have a high potential for widespread application, substantial benefit for the target groups with minimum lag time before adoption, a potential to enhance the research capacity of partners and to promote South-South cooperation.

For further information please contact: Center for International Forestry Research, P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia
Fax: +62-251-622 100, E-mail: cifor@cgnet.com

CANARI seeks to understand and promote the technical, organisational and policy requirements for the increased participation of communities and user groups in natural resource management, through an integrated programme of applied research, analysis and advocacy. Programme activities are designed to serve a range of audiences including: resource users; community institutions; non-governmental organisations; governments; universities and other research, policy and training institutions; donors and international assistance organisations; the private sector; and the general public.

Forest management issues are central to the mission and programme of the Institute.

CANARI places particular emphasis on the testing, definition and adoption of policies and instruments that can increase the involvement of forest stakeholders in resource management. Currently, CANARI is implementing a region-wide programme to support community participation in forestry, with support from the UK Overseas Development Administration (ODA), through the British Development Division in the Caribbean (BDDC).

As a small policy research and advocacy centre, the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute seeks to make strategic interventions which can progressively help to transform the policies and practice of governmental and non-governmental institutions in the insular Caribbean, towards a greater involvement of those who need the forest most, and who are in a privileged position to ensure its conservation, and its use for the harmonious and sustainable development of the Caribbean region.

The Institute's applied research is carried out through a series of field cases from around the region. The goal is to define the interventions required to achieve effective management at an optimal level of participation. In addition to developing its own research cases, the Institute works with other organisations to extract lessons from their field work.

One such example is ongoing research on sustainable mangrove management for charcoal production in the eastern Caribbean island of St. Lucia. The Institute has been working, for several years, in collaboration with governmental and community institutions to develop a collaborative management arrangement for a small mangrove area which is used extensively for charcoal production. As a result of the participatory formulation of harvesting and management procedures, which are enforced by the resource users, harvesting is now done on a sustainable basis.

The results of CANARI's applied research and the experience of other Caribbean experiments in participatory and collaborative resource management are used to test the skills and techniques needed to implement collaborative management and participatory planning. The Institute also defines the policy measures and policy formulation processes that can support and increase collaboration and participation.

In 1997, the Institute will convene a regional seminar on the public policy implications of participatory forest management in the Caribbean. The seminar will examine the current policy and legislative framework, and will extract from field experience some of the lessons that can guide policy formulation in relation to forestry in the region.

CANARI is also involved in a range of activities that build a foundation for the acceptance and use of participatory processes and collaborative arrangements in natural resource management. This programme element, called advocacy, is centred around issues and topics arising out of the Institute's applied research and analysis.

A major portion of the Institute's programme is therefore devoted to training in order to transfer skills to people who are in the position to influence the formulation of policies and the design of programmes at the local, national and regional levels. In October 1996, CANARI hosted a regional workshop on participatory methods for the design of community forestry projects and

programmes. The workshop was attended by professional foresters and NGO extension officers from around the Caribbean. A number of foresters from the region are currently participating in the Institute's training programme on the principles of participation and co-management which began in November 1996.

Another key element of the Institute's advocacy programme is the operation of a small grants fund to support community-based projects in natural resource management. The Fund, which is supported by ODA, has assisted twelve projects in the past year. The projects cover activities ranging from the establishment of community nurseries, to the development of ecotourism attractions, and the reforestation of degraded lands.

The Institute also prepares and publishes written and audio-visual materials relevant to the needs and conditions of the region, including case studies that document and analyze some of the Caribbean's experiences in participatory and collaborative forest management ( a CANARI training video on community forestry in the Carribean is presented on page 30 of this issue).

For further information about CANARI's programme and activities please contact:
The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI), 1113 Strand Street, Christiansted, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands 00820
Tel: +1-809 773-9854, Fax: +1-809 773-5770, E-mail: ac636@virgin.usvi.net
or :
Clarke Street, Vieux Fort, St. Lucia, Tel: +1-786 454-6060, Fax: +1- 786 454-5188, E-mail: canari@isis.org.lc

Researcher: Dr. Willem Assies (Utrecht University, Department of Cultural Anthropology).

Mailing address: CEDLA, Keizersgracht 395-397, 1016 EK Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Fax: +31-20 6255127, E-mail: assies@cedla.uva.nl

Project funding: Grants were provided by the Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research (WOTRO) and the Tropenbos Foundation.

Research summary: Research was carried out in 1994-96 in cooperation with the "Programa Manejo Sostenible de Bosque Tropical" of the Utrecht University Department of Plant Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.

The Program seeks to provide the ecological and socio-economic basis for sustainable forest management in northern Bolivia. My research aimed to contribute to its socio-economic component. This includes a comparative study of the extractive economies in northern Bolivia and the Brazilian Amazon region to provide general insights into the dynamics of extractive economies and their potential contribution to forest conservation and improvement of the living conditions of the local population.

Below some main findings are briefly presented:

Brazil nuts are one of the economically important non-timber forest products of the Amazon region and are viewed as a product that can make a significant contribution to strategies for sustainable development based on an extractive economy. In the region studied - northern Bolivia and the Brazilian state of Acre - Brazil nuts have been harvested for the better part of this century without causing significant damage to the forest. Brazil nut extractivism, however, should be viewed in the context of an annual agro-extractive cycle, which also included rubber tapping and agriculture. An understanding of this cycle and of the organizational framework in which such activities were carried out, is crucial to grasp the "traditional" sustainability of the regional economy. A review of the historical development of production systems provides insight into their dynamics and the shifts in relative weight among the various components of the agro-extractive cycle.

The decline of the rubber trade in the post-war period set the stage for economic reconversion which took different pathways in Acre and in northern Bolivia. Speculative land purchases and the conversion of forest into pasture land in Acre eventually met with organized resistance of the well-known rubber tappers' movement. As a result of their pressure, amplified by international support, the Brazilian government accepted the extractive reserve proposal as a strategy aimed at forest conservation and improvement of the living conditions of the local population. Rubber tapping and Brazil nut harvesting should provide the underpinning for the economic viability of these reserves. The viability of rubber tapping, however, was related to price support schemes that now have been dismantled. Brazil nut extractivism is a complementary activity and can, by itself, not provide an alternative. Moreover, its economic viability in Brazil is undermined by Bolivian competition on the world market. This can be illustrated with the case of the Agroextractive Cooperative (CAEX) in Xapuri.

In Bolivia, some observers expected a "democratization of the Brazil nut economy" to take place in the wake of the disintegration of the rubber estate system. However, such a "democratization" through expansion of the role of emerging peasant communities in the Brazil nut trade is unlikely. Processing plants, which have mushroomed in the region since the late 1980s, are buying up important nut stands. Harvesting is largely carried out by contract labor gangs recruited in urban areas. Bolivian Brazil nut exports are inserted in a neo-liberal strategy of non-traditional export promotion. Their international competitiveness is related to a harsh and exploitative labor regime during the harvest and in the processing plants. As a result of the process of vertical integration in the industry the role of small producers in the peasant communities as providers of raw nuts will tend to become complementary and residual. Where peasant communities are dynamic, this is not related to extractivism but to agriculture and an advantageous location in relation to markets.

The present study yielded some important insights. Firstly, the concept of the agro-extractive cycle was introduced. In the area studied it helps discriminate between cases in which extractivism could constitute a livelihood alternative and those in which it is complementary. If it is complementary, the existence of other livelihood activities, notably agriculture, should be acknowledged and taken into account in devising strategies for sustainable development. Secondly, it is generally accepted that to meet the requirement of social acceptability NTFP extraction must involve substantial gatherer control over initial processing and marketing in order to achieve an equitable distribution of benefits.

Although in the case of the extractive reserves these conditions seem to have been met to a relevant degree, competition in the (global) market dictates cost reduction which translates into lower incomes and/or reduced social benefits.

Thirdly, and in contrast, the Bolivian case shows economic feasibility - competitiveness and profitability - in a free market context to be related to economies of scale, vertical integration of processing industries and concentration of capital whereby small producers of raw material tend to be marginalized and will turn to agriculture for a livelihood. Moreover, Bolivian competitiveness is related to forms of socio-economic organization that contradict the social acceptability objective of sustainable development.

If sustainability, or sustainable development, is viewed as not only involving the ecological aspect but as including economic feasibility and socio-political acceptability, the analysis of the Amazon nut economy suggests important trade-offs - if not a contradiction - between economic viability in a globalized market economy and social acceptability, which in turn has feed-back effects on land use and forest exploitation.

A "political ecology" approach may provide a fruitful framework for further research into these issues.

A joint research effort of institutes from Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Denmark, Finland, and The Netherlands funded by the European Commission
(INCO-DC, DG12-IC18 CT960038)

Outline

The proposal embraces a joint effort of Latin American and European universities to obtain an improved appraisal of the resource availability of non-timber forest plant products (NTFPP) in NW Amazonia by means of research on NTFPP trade patterns and market values, and potential NTFPP supply from mature forests in three pilot areas.

Sustainable NTFPP exploitation prevents deforestation and degradation, and stimulates autonomous developments of local, forest-dwelling communities. NW Amazonia has long tradition of commercial NTFPP extraction, but production was usually not on a sustained basis and net local revenues were very low. The project aims at providing a qualitative update of the current situation of NTFPP commercialization (market analysis) in NW Amazonia.

The highly diverse rain forests of NW Amazonia offer a large potential of NTFFP. Realistic estimates are highly needed. New methods for quantitative ethnobotanic research will be used to assess NTFPP resource availability in three study areas in Ecuador, Peru, and Colombia. Usefulness of trees and understory plants in forest types, recognised on recent aerial photographs and satellite imagery, will be compared. This allows for more precise recommendations concerning potential development and conservation of NW Amazonian rain forests.

Specific objectives

• Carry out a market survey of NTFPP in NW Amazonia.
• Carry out a comparative assessment of NTFPP resource availability in different forest types in three pilot areas in NW Amazonia.

Duration and Location

The project is scheduled for three years (1997-1999). Pilot areas are located in Amazon lowlands of Ecuador (Yasuni National Park and Waorani Reserve), Northern Peru (Río Sucusarí basin) and Colombia (Araracuara area). The market survey focuses on markets along the major rivers in NW Amazonia, but will also include Andean markets.

Addressed research questions

• How are regional patterns of current commercialization of NTFPP in NW Amazonia? What are the potential explanations for these patterns, and what are the options for local and regional development of NTFPP extraction in view of the current market situations?
• How do forest types differ with respect to potential NTFPP resource availability?
• How should these differences be evaluated
• in view of different appraisal methods of NTFPP availability?

Innovative approach

• Integrated socio-economic and ecological research effort.
• Spatial variation at different scales of NTFPP supply and demand in NW Amazonia systematically incorporated, benefiting extrapolation.
• NTFPP use evaluated on the basis of local (indigenous) community knowledge and literature, ensuring that results have more than just local relevance.
• Understory elements, phenological status, and production estimates systematically included, generating more realistic estimates of NTFPP supply.
• Strengthened involvement of vegetation science, (ethno)botany, and economic botany in the search for sustainable forest land use in NW Amazonia.

Shared expertise

Expert knowledge of European and Latin American institutes, all with different kinds of experience in the lowland areas of NW Amazonia, will be shared. Partners are the University of Amsterdam (Hugo de Vries Laboratory); University of Aarhus (Department of Systematic Botany); University of Turku (Amazon Project); Universidad de los Andes (Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas) with Tropenbos-Colombia; P. Universidad Católica of Ecuador (Herbario QCA); Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana (Faculdad de Biología).

Benefits and results

Improved knowledge of commercial NTFPP extraction in NW Amazonia. More realistic estimates of NTFPP usefulness of different forest types, shown on maps. Spanish book on NTFPP resources in NW Amazonia.

Target beneficiaries

Local indigenous population, extension workers, and policy makers at local, regional, and national level. Channelling of results by means of publications in Spanish reports, articles and book, and in seminars, congresses, and workshop.

Relevance for policy and management

The project provides basic elements for development of natural forest management systems in NW Amazonia. Recommendations are given concerning potential development and conservation of forest types on the basis of realistic estimates of potential NTFPP supply. Hazardous situations of commercial extraction levels exceeding local potential supply may be indicated.

Link with other projects

Links are present with projects of Tropenbos-Colombia (among others: development of an indigenous model for regional natural resource management in the Caquetá River basin, territorial planning of Colombian Amazonian, assessments of plant diversity), a soil mapping project near Iquitos, Peru by University of Turku, Finland with Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana, and projects of economic botany and ethobotany of the Unversity of Aarhus Denmark together with the P. Universidad Católica of Ecuador.

Coordination

Joost F. Duivenvoorden (co-ordinator) and Antoine M. Cleef; Hugo de Vries Laboratory, University of Amsterdam, Kruislaan 318 1098 SM Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Tel.: +31-20-525 7812; Fax: +31-20-525 7840; E-mail:duivenvoorden@bio.uva.nl

The integrated project "Mangrove Dynamics and Management" (MADAM) is designed to investigate basic questions regarding the ecology of mangrove ecosystems and also to provide solutions to problems of sustainable utilization and environmental protection on the basis of a broad ecological knowledge and socio-economic studies. A most suitable site for these investigations is the mangrove forest at the mouth of the Amazon River, unique in its size and diversity.

Until now, ecosystem research predominantly focused on investigations of rather natural and pristine systems, where the influence of human activities can be neglected. However, this approach does not meet the reality of most ecosystems - including mangroves. Viewing exclusively natural interactions and complexities is not enough, and it does not suffice to assess human impact only under the aspect of natural sciences. There is a growing awareness that social and economic sciences as well as management aspects need to be included. Therefore, in this proposal we understand ecosystem research as the investigation of natural systems and their interactions with the anthroposphere.

Mangroves are defined as an open system in the transition area between land and water. The basic theory for this integrated project reads as follows:

"Mangroves have important functions as a filter, sink as well as an area for modification and passage of energy and material. The structure of the mangrove system, its function and stability can be disturbed severely by various kinds of utilization."

In order to quantify these functions of the mangroves listed in the above theory and to assess the buffer capacity of the system, a multi- and interdisciplinary collaboration of different scientific disciplines and the integration of the research results for modelling the system are needed. The individual tasks are combined in subject-specific modules with a closely linked data and information exchange, guaranteeing an optimization of the data flow within the project and of the feedback of results for subsequent planing phases. This inevitably results in a chronological order of the individual activities in three successive phases, which has been considered in the following description of the general objectives.

These objectives are listed according to the modules (arabic numbers) and the phases (roman numbers):

Module 1

Record of the space- and time-related variables of abiotic parameters:

• I Geographic description of the study area; identification of land, water and flooding areas; description of the hydrographic system and abiotic parameters in the study area and its seasonality; the regional climate.
• II & III Concomitant investigations of the physical environment as a contribution to the other modules.

Module 2

Mechanisms for the maintenance of biodiversity in mangroves:

• I Inventory of the fauna; investigation of the distribution, abundance and dominance of relevant species.
• II Specialization of species in ecological niches; competition and displacement phenomena; question regarding the critical minimum size of populations and areas.
• III Importance of a decrease in biodiversity for function and structure of the mangrove ecosystems; consequences of a sustainable utilization of mangrove resources for the preservation of biodiversity.

Module 3

Description of the socio-economic environment:

• I Assessment of structure and functionality of the economic, socio-demographic and socio-cultural section of the system in this region.
• II Investigation of interactions between the sections, and the role of external socio-economic forcing.
• III Changes within these sections through time, and their present development trends; assessment of the resource extraction under the aspect of its sustainability.

Module 4

Availability, biomass, productivity and utilization of animal and plant resources:

• I Identification of the most important resources.
• II Determination of population composition, biomass and recruitment.
• III Possibilities and recommendations for a sustainable utilization of the living resources.

Module 5

The role of various primary producers with regard to the total production of the system:

• I Assessment of the primary production of mangrove trees and their epiphytes as well as of phytoplankton.
• II Primary productivity of microbial organisms.
• III Assessment of the spatial and time variability of individual primary producers with regard to the total production.

Module 6

Identification of the major energy- and material-transport paths through the system:

• I Assessment of energy sources and carriers.
• II Chemical cycles (carbon and nitrogen)
• III Definition of trophic levels; detritus food chain and microbial loops.

Module 7

Modelling of the mangrove system and recommendations for a sustainable development:

• I Establishment of a data bank (Mangrove Information System, MAIS), evaluation of existing ecosystem models for mangroves.
• II Quantitative assessment of energy and material within the various compartments of the ecosystem as well as of the socio-economic general conditions, formulation of their mathematical relationship with the objective to describe and predict the behaviour of the mangrove ecosystem.
• III Derivation of management recommendations under consideration of political, social and legal circumstances following the ICZM concept.

MADAM is designed to be carried out as a cooperative project of Brazilian and German research institutions in the region of the Amazon estuary. MADAM is composed of partial projects (modules), whose progress and success can be controlled individually, each with a strict time limit.

With the project presented here it is intended to establish a German/Brazilian research focus on "Ecology of Tropical Coastal Regions" in order to improve the scientific basis for the protection and utilization of tropical coastal ecosystems. For this, a research concept is being developed, which combines the linkage of scientific questions regarding structure and function of the investigated ecosystem, with economic and social questions of resource utilization. Accordingly, research is planned as a multi- and interdisciplinary approach and subdivided into modules, which cover the necessary areas of scientific disciplines as well as various space and time scales. The results of each research module will be incorporated in the ecological model and, thus, contribute to the development of management concepts for the particular coastal region under investigation.

Projects of this kind are within the scope of national and international environmental research foci. In the wake of the 1992 Rio conference and in accord with Agenda 21 on sustainable development of ecosystems as well as with global conventions on environmental protection there is an increasing awareness of the public regarding the need for an intensification of research in the tropics.

Plans for future development is outlined in the Marine Research Program of the Federal Government (1993). This development relates to the research priorities defined by the BMBF, i.e. climate impact research and ecology. To guarantee sustainable development of tropical coastal areas calls for specific action.

Coastal zones in the tropics are under increasing pressure regarding resource utilization due to a rapidly growing population. From the various benefits provided by coastal waters for the human society, serious conflicts of interest result not only between efforts to utilize and to protect, but also between different kind of utilization. These conflicts will aggravate in the future considering the impacts of the expected global climate change. The problems arising from this can only be solved by a global alliance.

In its 1994 Annual Report, the "Scientific Advisory Council on Global Change" (WBGU) outlined these research requirements and emphasized the particular importance of a scientifically sound sustainable development of coastal regions.

The Scientific Council, in its comprehensive statement on environmental research, also commented on German scientific engagement in non-european regions, especially in tropical and subtropical latitudes. The Council gives a number of reasons as to why German environmental research in these regions should be strengthened, and points out several deficits regarding not only adequate research structures, but also the number of scientists experienced in these fields of study. The integrated project is to be carried out within the Brazilian-German Cooperation on Science and Technology in the field of Marine Science of 1969. In its Pilot Program on Marine Sciences of 1994, the Brazilian Ministry of Science and Technology (MCT) defines priorities for research projects directed at the comprehension of the coastal ecosystems, in particular with respect to ecosystem dynamics, effects of natural processes in the coastal zones including an efficient strategy for integrated coastal zone management, characterization and maintenance of marine biodiversity, coastal zone pollution, as well as vulnerability and sustainability of marine ecosystems.

Focussing on living marine resources and their environment, the joint integrated project on Mangrove Dynamics and Management - MADAM fulfils the objective of both the Brazilian Pilot Program and the German Marine Research Program.

For further information please contact:
German Contact Office for Tropical Coastal Research, Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstrasse 1, D-28359 Bremen, Germany
Tel.:+49-421-22 08 326, Fax +49-421-22 08 330, E-Mail: kontaktstelle@zmt.uni-bremen.de, Homepage: http://www.zmt.uni-bremen.de

Please mention the full name and address of your institute otherwise we cannot ensure the correct publication of your request.

Mr Jamie Gordon of Fountain Renewable Resources UK searches information on current and past research on chicle production in Central America and Mexico.

Contact:Jamie Gordon, Fountain Renewable Resources (FRR), The Bell Tower, 12 High Street, Brackley, Northants-UK
Fax: +44-1280-706700, E-mail: 100615.2064@compuserve.com

Natural forests are the source of almost all high grade hardwoods in the tropics but they are being degraded and deforested at an unprecedented rate. Alternative supply sources for quality hardwoods (plantations) are scarce. Between 1980 and 1990, hardwoods declined from 11% to 5%, as a proportion of all tropical plantations. Meanwhile, forecasts indicate that demand for quality wood is set to rise into the foreseeable future.

It is said that, if any one aspect of forestry development is neglected, other aspects suffer. Quality hardwood cultivation has been neglected in the tropics and the balance needs to be restored.

On 11th October, 1996, a publication entitled 'TEAK 2000' was launched at the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. TEAK 2000 examines the possibility of establishing sufficient areas of teak and other quality hardwood plantations and to produce a significant output of high grade timber on a sustained basis, which should also relieve pressure on natural forests and contribute to the sequestration of carbon.

The suggested mechanism for augmenting hardwood plantations is the Consor tium Support Model (CMS). As the name suggests, it is a system under which support (financial and technical) is given to groups (consortia) of teak growers to enable them to produce more and better quality teak in a socially and environmentally acceptable manner. The support of friendly governments, in whose territories the new plantations will be developed, is also sought.

Research and investment targeted at a consortium will be more effective than if it is attempted to provide assistance to individual growers.The CMS is designed to satisfy the mutual benefit of investors, growers, processors, local communities and the market itself. The model recommends that teak be planted only in sites where good growth rates and good quality timber can be achieved. It proposes support for financial, technical, research and quality control matters, to ensure the most economically viable, socially desirable, and environmentally friendly production of teak in significant quantity (1.5 to 2 million ha) over several countries. The Model also includes links to forest certification and labelling, to attest independently to the quality of production, and to 'brand' the product.

The establishment of new teak and other hardwood plantations is not meant to distract from other activities of a forestry nature, including other plantations which are being carried on in the tropics. Rather, it is intended to complement them and, in so doing, produce a balanced output of goods and services from forests, woodlands and plantations as a whole.

TEAK 2000 has been published to obtain as wide a spectrum of views as possible on the concept and to obtain a list of interested individuals and organizations who would be willing to become active participants in translating the concept into a working reality.

It is now clear that there are many interested investors, growers, researchers, forestry organizations, companies and traders throughout the world who are interested in the CSM concept. TEAK 2000 is of interest to the donor community and its agencies, governments and the private sector worldwide.

It is also clear, however, that no existing organization has the mandate to bring together these diverse entities and translate TEAK 2000 into a working reality. To do so, a new world entity needs to be established. The new organization will be responsible for developing all aspects of the CMS as outlined in TEAK 2000. It will work with existing organizations where possible but will develop new support mechanisms where these are deemed necessary. It will also be responsible for identifying information gaps and filling these through studies and consultations.

The new entity will need the support of individuals, existing organizations, agencies and the private sector who have an interest in specific aspects of the CMS concept, such as: forestry development, investment facilities, genetic improvment and propagation programmes, the environmental and social dimensions, timber certification, processing and marketing.

The publication TEAK 2000 is available from the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), at the following address:
IIED, 3 Endsleigh Street, London WCIH 0DD, UK
Tel.:+44-171-388 2117, Fax:+44-171-388 2826, E-mail: iiedforestry@gn.apc.org

"We are now five years from UNCED and have witnessed a vast amount of talking in a multitude of fora. (...) We are entitled to ask - when will talk result in action?" (Don Gilmour, Coordinator IUCN Forest Conservation Programme)

On August 19-22, 1996, Finland hosted the Intergovernmental Seminar on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management. The seminar supports the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), in particular its programme element III.2 "Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management".

The discussions at the Seminar reflect the growing international interest in the promotion of sustainable forest management through the elaboration and implementation of criteria and indicators. As an outcome of the seminar, conclusions and key elements for action concerning the national implementation of criteria and indicators and their international comparability and compatibility, were brought to the attention of the third session of the IPF, held in mid-September 1996 in Geneva, Switzerland.

The following article briefly reviews the different international fora and concepts related to this issue.

I. Sustainable Management

The development of the concept of sustainable development and management of natral resources, such as forests, reflects the changing values and attitudes of society. The term became more common at the beginning of the 1970s, when concern about the rapidly expanding world population and the increasingly polluted environment resulting from growing industrialisation led to a discussion on the limits of growth. The most recent major move towards sustainable development was the UNCED conference in Rio de Janeiro, 1992, which approved the action programme Agenda 21, under which world governments engaged to promote sustainable development nationally and in international cooperation.

It was agreed at UNCED that the general concept of sustainable forest management should follow the (not legally binding) "Forest Principles", "forest resources and forest lands should be managed sustainably to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations". There seems to be a common international understanding of what constitute the fundamental elements of sustainable forest management, as the various post-UNCED initiatives recognized the need to maintain and enhance both the value of forests as ecosystems and the multiple functions of forests. Although the term has been described in various fora, it has not been explicitly defined in many. For example, the definition of the Second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of European Forests in Helsinki,1993, states that "Sustainable management means the stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, that maintains their biological diversity, productivity, regeneration, capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfil, now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national and global levels and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems".

II. Criteria and Indicators

Certain parameters, e.g. area of forest or annual removal of wood products, have been monitored over decades. The information obtained has guided forest policy making. Recently, especially after UNCED, systematic elaboration of criteria and indicators that constitute sustainable forest management has taken place. They measure both the quality and quantity of sustainable forest management.

Criterion means an aspect or a set of conditions that is considered important and by which success or failure of sustainable forest management will be judged.
Indicator means a quantitative, qualitative or descriptive measure that, if applied in regular intervals, shows the direction of change. Quantitative indicators provide information mainly on the conditions and functions of forests, and on the values or benefits associated with the goods and services that forests provide. Descriptive indicators give information on the existence of policy instruments and policy conditions for sustainable forest management.

Simplified example:

Criterion: Maintenance and encouragement of productive functions of forests (wood and non-wood) on the national (country) level .
One of the descriptive indicators for wood production could be: Financial/economic policy framework existence and the extent to which this framework supports management planning in regional and estate forests.
One of the quantitative indicators for wood production could be: National and regional figures on the balance between growth and removal of wood.

Criteria and indicators may help determine the orientation of forest and environmental policies and research and may guide forest practices, thus serving as a tool for achieving sustainable management.

The development of criteria and indicators entails their identification and formulation. They may be developed and agreed upon globally (which has not occurred so far and is unlikely to happen), internationally or regionally. They may also be developed for use at the national level or even at the forest management unit level .

The implementation of criteria and indicators means their use in assessing whether or not progress towards sustainable forest management has been made in the country concerned. At present only few countries have collected national data for indicators.

III. International and Regional Initiatives

Since UNCED, several international initiatives have been working on the issue of criteria and indicators. Prior to UNCED, the twelfth meeting of the ITTO Council in May 1992 in Yaoundé, Cameroon, adopted a definition of criteria and examples for indicators. Four post-UNCED initiatives are continuing at present. These four initiatives are the follow-up of the Helsinki Ministerial Conference, known as the Helsinki Process; the non-European Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests, known as the Montreal Process; the Tarapoto Proposal on the Definition of Criteria and Indicators for Sustainability of Amazon Forests, and the most recent initiative, the UNEP/FAO Dry-Zone Africa meeting. All of these initiatives are not legally binding.

Furthermore, a number of international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as, e. g., the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), the World Conservation Union (IUCN) or the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) have been working on the development of principles to measure and assess sustainable forest management.

A project to test and improve criteria and indicators for all types of forests on a scientific basis at the forest management unit level was launched in August 1994. After two European expert level meetings in February and June 1994 it was agreed that the project "Testing Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Forests" should be coordinated by the Centre of International Forestry Research (CIFOR). CIFOR's research project is, as yet, the only international effort to evaluate and develop criteria and indicators at the forest or management unit level. Based on selected sets of criteria and indicators from different non-governmental initiatives (e.g. Woodmark/UK or Smart Wood/USA) which were considered the most advanced generic or site specific at the start of the project, field tests in four different continents were carried out. Meanwhile, the first phase of the project has finished and has recently been documented in a report published by CIFOR.

The ISCI Seminar, held in Helsinki in August 1996, was meant to discuss and evaluate the different international and regional initiatives undertaken so far. It also aimed at promoting and encouraging the national implementation of criteria and indicators, studying the feasibility of their further development and examining their comparability.

The recommendations and the agreement on key elements for action elaborated at the ISCI Seminar will be brought to the attention of the IPF. The IPF was established by UNCSD in 1995 as an open-ended, ad hoc body to facilitate coordinated international action related to the statement of the Rio "Forest Principles". To provide UNCSD with recommendations on the development and implementation of internationally agreed criteria and indicators is part of IPF's working programme.

Below the ITTO and the four post-UNCED initiatives are briefly introduced. Examples for criteria are given for the Helsinki Process, the Tarapoto Proposal and the UNEP/FAO initiative for comparison.

ITTO
In 1989, an International Panel of Experts with representatives from producer and consumer countries, FAO, WWF, the timber trade, and consultants was setup to develop the ITTO Guidelines for the Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests, which were then endorsed by ITTO's Council (ITTC) in 1990. Other ITTO Guidelines for planted tropical forests and the conservation of biological diversity in tropical production forests were prepared in 1991 and 1993. In May 1992, the twelfth ITTO Council Meeting adopted the definition of criteria and examples for indicators. Five criteria and 27 example indicators were prepared for use at the national level, and six criteria and 23 example indicators for the forest management unit level. None of these indicators needs measuring to show sustainable forest management or the degree to which it has been achieved. This approach differs from the other initiatives (e.g. the Helsinki and Montreal processes) which emphasise criteria and indicators as a fully integrated and inseparable package. The ITTO Guidelines and Criteria cover the forests of ITTO producer countries in all tropical regions. In the ITTO initiative, the development of criteria and indicators was based upon the pressure on the tropical timber markets. The ITTO criteria and indicators were intentionally kept simple and oriented towards forest management practices on the field level. Many of these management unit level criteria and indicators are covered by the national level issues of the other initiatives. The indicators were conceived as sort of a checklist to provide guidance and assistance for planning. With the help of ITTO indicators, it can be ascertained wether certain conditions for sustainable forest management have been fulfiled or not. These conditions are reviewed using criteria and mainly descriptive or qualitative (yes/no type) indicators.

HELSINKI PROCESS
Two resolutions signed at the Second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, held in Helsinki in June 1993 form the political background to the development of the Pan-European criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. The Helsinki Conference advanced the "Forest Principles" at UNCED, with the aim of implementing them at the regional and national level. The Pan-European criteria (6) and indicators (27) for sustainable forest management were adopted in the first follow-up meeting to the Helsinki Ministerial Conference, held in Geneva in June 1994. On the basis of a repeated measuring of indicators it was intended to show to what extent the current management of European forests fulfils the requirements of sustainability.

Pan-European criteria for sustainable forest management, June 1994:

1. Maintenance and appropriate enhancement of forest resources and their contribution to global carbon cycles
2. Maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality
3. Maintenance and encouragement of productive functions of forests (wood and non-wood)
4. Maintenance, conservation and appropriate enhancement of biological biodiversity in forest ecosystems
5. Maintenance and appropriate enhancement of protective functions in forest management (notably soil and water)
6. Maintenance of other socio-economic functions and conditions

Together with the FAO/UNEP Dry-Zone Africa and the Montreal Initiatives, the Helsinki process also covers the function of forests for and its links to the carbon cycle.

MONTREAL PROCESS
The Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests, the Montreal Process, was established by several like-minded countries in Kuala Lumpur in April 1994. It followed the Second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (Helsinki, June 1993) and the Seminar of Experts on Sustainable Development of Temperate and Boreal Forests, held in Montreal in September 1993 within the frame of the conference of the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

The sixth meeting of the Montreal Process in Santiago 1995 concluded with the Santiago Declaration in which the cooperating countries (Australia, Canada, Chile, China, Japan, Rep. of Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Russia, USA. As of Nov. 1995: Argentina, Uruguay) endorsed criteria (7) and indicators (67) for the management of temperate and boreal forests at the national level. This set of criteria and indicators was developed at an expert level and corresponds in the main to the set formulated by the Helsinki process.

THE TARAPOTO PROPOSAL
The Tarapoto Proposal was the first effort to obtain an instrument for planning sustainable forest management in the Amazonian countries. The conclusions and recommendations of an expert workshop held in Tarapoto, Peru, in February 1995 were submitted to the governments of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (ACT) for adoption. Thus, once ratified by the governments of the ACT countries (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela), the Tarapoto proposal may have a political umbrella for its future activities. The Amazonian countries have identified those criteria and indicators which apply to the specific conditions of this region. The purpose of the proposal was to make environmental sustainability factors compatible with the optimal economic use of the Amazon forests. The adopted criteria (12) and associated indicators (77) are grouped into three categories:

Proposed criteria for the sustainability of Amazonian forests, February 1995

National level criteria:

1. Socio-economic benefits
2. Policies and legal-institutional framework for Sustainable development of the forests
3. Sustainable forest production
4. Conservation of forest cover and of biological diversity
5. Conservation and integrated management of water and soil resources
6. Science and technology for the sustainable development of the forests
7. Institutional capacity to promote sustainable development in Amazonia

Management unit level criteria:

1. Legal and institutional framework
2. Sustainable forest production
3. Conservation of forest ecosystems
4. Local socio-economic benefits

Criterion for the services global level:

1. Economic, social and environmental services performed by Amazonian forests

UNEP/FAO
The most recent initiative, the UNEP/FAO Dry-Zone Africa initiative, developed from an Expert Meeting on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management held in Nairobi, Kenya in November 1995. This meeting focused at formulating a set of criteria (7) and indicators (47) for the national level of countries belonging to sub-Saharan dry-zone Africa. Being the most recent one, this process has been able to benefit from previous results.

Criteria proposed by the UNEP/FAO Expert Meeting at regional scale for countries belonging to sub-Saharan dry-zone Africa, November 1995

1. Maintenance and improvement of forest resources, including their contribution to global carbon cycles
2. Conservation and enhancement of biological diversity in forest ecosystems
3. Maintenance of forest ecosystem health, vitality and integrity
4. Maintenance and enhancement of production functions of forests and other wooded lands
5. Maintenance and improvement of protection functions in forest management
6. Maintenance and enhancement of socio-economic benefits
7. Adequacy of legal, institutional and policy frameworks for sustainable forest management.

IV. Comparability

A direct comparison of national level criteria and indicators of the four post-UNCED and the ITTO initiative is difficult, as all the approaches differ more or less in structure and formulation, even as regards their basic definition of criteria and indicators. Generally it may be stated that all of the initiatives include the following six elements in their criteria:

• a) Extent of forest resources
• b) Biological diversity
• c) Health and vitality
• d) Productive functions
• e) Protective and environmental functions
• f) Development and social needs
• g)Legal policy and institutional framework

There are also similarities between the indicators of each initiative (except the ITTO appoach which, in this aspect, is not comparable to the others). Quantitative indicators, e. g., are the area of forest cover, balance between growth and removal, extent size of the protected areas, degraded areas, number of threatened species, employment conditions, value of forest products, soil protection and watershed management.

Within the NGO community, the FSC and the WWF have developed principles for measuring and assessing sustainable forest management which apply to all tropical, temperate and boreal forests, including plantations. The FSC principles and criteria specifically address forest management operations at the forest level. They are to be included into the evaluation systems and standards of the certification organisations seeking accreditation by the FSC.

The concept of the WWF focuses on "Criteria of Forest Quality", with four criteria and 25 specific "elements" for assessing the condition of forest ecosystems. This concept was first submitted to the Second Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Jakarta, Indonesia, in November 1995. WWF's four criteria of forest quality are:

• authenticity
• forest health
• environmental benefits
• other social and economic benefits

The term "authenticity" is the major element of the WWF proposal. It is defined as a "reflection of the extent to which an existing forest corresponds to a natural (authentic) forest in terms of composition and ecology".

In this respect, authenticity is not meant as a rule for restoring or conserving wholly natural forests. The WWF proposal states that such wholly natural forests do not longer exists in practice, except for isolated fragments.

The more realistic definition of an authentic forest might therefore be a forest in which all the expected ecosystem functions can operate over time. Further, the WWF proposal lists four components for estimating a forest's authenticity such as, e. g., the composition of tree species and other plant and animal species or the pattern of intraspecific variation, as shown in trees by their canopy and stand structure, age-class, understorey, etc.

Proposals for measuring and balancing the different components are further outlined in the WWF proposal.

The information on criteria and indicators provided in this article has been extracted from different publications, notably the following:

• Intergovernmental Seminar on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management, Background Document, June 1996. Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, P.O. Box 232, FIN-00171 Helsinki
• Intergovernmental Seminar on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management, National Experiences on Criteria and Indicators: Compilation of reports and papers made available at the ISCI Seminar, October 1996. Compiled by Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, P.O. Box 232, FIN-00171 Helsinki
• The BOS NiEuWSLETTER no. 33, vol.15 (1), April 1996. Publisher: The BOS Foundation, P.O. Box 23, NL-6700 AA Wageningen/The Netherlands
• Final report of the CIFOR research project: Testing Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management of Forests: Phase 1. Published 1996 by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia

The Conference will be of interest to academic and industrial scientists, educationalists research students and all those involved in anatomy, morphology, biochemistry, biophysics, biometrics, botany, ecology, genetics, paleobotany, physiology, solid and structural mechanics or soil mechanics; and those interested in both fundamental and applied aspects of plant biomechanics. There will be lectures by invited speakers, both oral and poster sessions, and round table discussions. A call for papers has been issued. Interested parties are invited to register as soon as possible.

For more details, or to register, contact:
Ms Sally Pellow, Centre of Biomimetics, 1 Earley Gate, UK-Reading RG6 6AT, Tel.: +44-118- 931 8923, E-mail: s.j.pellow@reading.ac.uk

Registration documentation will be sent out in March 1997 with details of conference fees.

The site also includes up-to-date information about technical cooperation in the pilot project on the conservation of the Amazonian rainforest.

IUFRO Internet Information Service
Note that changes have been made to IUFRONet, so that some URLs may have changed. IUFRONet is now implemented at 4 regional mirror sites, allowing you faster access. Check out

• http://iufro.boku.ac.at/,
• http://www.catie.ac.cr/iufro/,
• http://salava.metla.fi:4040/iufro/.

All sites carry identical material.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
In the last issue of ETFRN News you found attached the German "Clearing House Mechanism Balloon" No. 1. If you are interested in further information on the CBD you can visit the following homepages of the National Focal Points:

• Belgium: http://www.kbinirsnb.be/bch-cbd/homepage.htm
• Brazil: http://www.bdt.org.br
• Costa Rica: http://www.inbio.ac.cr/
• Germany: http://www.dainet.de/bmu-cbd

The "Directory of European Research Institutions in the Field of Tropical, Subtropical and Mediterranean Forests" is part of ETFRN's information service which aims at stimulating joint research activities between European institutions and their partners in the South. The publication is based on the ETFRN database on European tropical forest research organisations which has been completely updated and extended by means of two questionnaires sent out in April and October 1996.

The Directory provides a comprehensive overview of more than 450 European research institutions in 16 European countries engaged in tropical, subtropical or Mediterranean forest research in a broad sense. It was the intention to also include those organisations which are concerned with issues like agroforestry, biological research or social aspects related to the forests and their development in the tropics and subtropics.

The structure of the Directory has been kept as simple as possible, providing substantial information on the addresses, contacts, research areas and regions of the listed institutions. The Directory lists the institutions of the respective countries in alphabetical order.

To facilitate understanding, subunits, like institutes or departments, have also been translated into English. Three indices are annexed to allow a keyword search for research areas, research regions and experts.

This new publication is the only comprehensive guide to organisations in all parts of the world that are concerned with the urgent problems of the environment and natural resources. It describes more than 3.200 organizations in over 200 countries and is a user's guide to "Who's doing what". Newly revised fifth edition, 1996.

The BOS Foundation, Organization for International Forestry Cooperation, in cooperation with the Netherlands Committee for IUCN has just released the publication "The Guyana Shield. Recent Developments and Alternatives for Sustainable Development".

The Guyana Shield covers North-East Brazil (the State Amapa), French Guiana, Surniname, Guyana, Venezuela and Colombia (up to the Andes). The region is unique in the world, characterized by an enormous, often endemic, biological and great cultural diversity. The region is still hardly opened up and therefore quit inaccessible.

The last few years the virginity of this region is under growing pressure. Agriculture, mining, road building, dam construction, cattle ranching, hunting, smuggling and logging pose a serious threat on the biological and cultural diversity. National governments, also because of socio-economic problems, are under a growing pressure of foreign investors to open up the borders for exploitation of the natural resources.

In 17 articles "The Guyana Shield. Recent Developments and Alternatives for Sustainable Development" gives insight into the biological and cultural diversity of the region and the recent threats imposed on them. Above all it is meant to give insight into local, national and international initiatives undertaken for the protection of the biological and cultural values of the region and alternatives offered for sustainable use of the tropical forests and mineral resources.

• A video by the Carribean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI)
• Produced with support from the British Development Division in the Caribbean (BDDC)
• Price:US$15.00 (US$ 18.00 for mailing to Asia or Africa), price includes shipping and handling.

Trees for People, People for Trees is a 22 minute training video on community forestry in the Carribean. It examines the concept of community forestry and uses examples from around the region to illustrate some of the ways in which Carribean communities are managing forests and forest resources for their social, economic and ecological benefit. This video was produced by the Carribean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI).

Trees for People, People for Trees is a useful training tool, and can be used in formal and non-formal educational settings. This video is suitable for use by community animators, extension officers, village councils, teachers or anyone interested in community forestry in the Carribean.

Docentes rurales activos e interesados en el progreso de su comunidad, extensionistas y técnicos de campo encontrarán en esta obra conocimientos ecológicos básicos para comprender los fundamentos del desarrollo rural sostenible. El texto emplea un lenguaje sencillo, sin perjudicar la base científica y técnica. Responde a las preguntas y reflexiones que surgen cotidianamente cuando se enfrentan problemas relacionados con los efectos de la erosión, deforestación y desertificación de las zonas rurales. Efectos que causan pobreza, pérdida de incentivos y migración campesina.

Este libro proporciona además, soluciones prácticas y simples para que el desarrollo rural sostenible se haga realidad. Sus propuestas enseñan que el manejo sostenible de los recursos naturales es un esfuerzo que va más allá de las posibilidades individuales: debe ser un compromiso adquirido por toda la comunidad.

En sus ocho capítulos se explican conceptos y técnicas básicas que son útiles para introducir un adecuado manejo de los recursos naturales en la vida cotidiana de la poblaciones campesinas. Los capítulos se focalisan sobre: ? Qué es la ecología ? El suelo; El agua; Las plantas; Los animales; El medio ambiente; y La influencia umana. Todos los capítulos tienen una estructura similar: conceptos básicos; un aspecto o una síntesis del tema presentado; actividades prácticas de carácter participativo; y sugerencias sobre cómo evaluar el aprendizaje obtenido.

Este libro sigue al Manual para profesores rurales del área andina, que contiene los aspectos metodológicos de la enseñanza ecológica rural (Estudio FAO Montes N°121).

No obstante que el libro ha sido elaborado para la capacitación en educación ecológica de profesores de escuelas rurales, extensionistas y técnicos de campo, es también una fuente de información y reflexión para quienes trabajan con medios de comunicación, en la administración pública y en organizaciones no gubernamentales y para todos los que quieran contribuir al uso sostenible de los recursos naturales.

Available from UNRISD, Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10 (US$5 for readers in the North, US$2.50 for readers in the South)

Deforestation is increasing dangerously throughout sub-Saharan Africa, with serious consequences for the livelihoods of populations who depend on the availability of forest products. Forest loss is connected principally with the expansion of cultivated surfaces, the use of forests for timber - and even more so for firewood - as well as the spread of urban areas.

This Discussion Paper, in French, focuses on francophone sub-Saharan Africa, where there are similar legislative and institutional traditions relating to forestry matters, even though ecological conditions and sociological contexts differ between countries. It examines the extent to which recent attempts to address the problem of deforestation take into account the needs, traditions and skills of the populations most affected by forest loss. The paper also considers whether these new forestry policies are consistent with other development policies, particularly those relating to agriculture and energy.

Larenstein wishes to get in contact with candidates for a function in

Curriculum Development for Natural Resource Management

Description of the post:

The Curriculum expert is responsible for:

• - formulation of ob profiles at B.Sc.- and M.Sc.-levels in (tropical) Forestry and Natural Resource Management
• -translation of these into study programmes
• - identification of training needs for existing staff
• - the development of training materials
• - coordination the implementation of new study programmes
• - purchase and installation of project materials within the assigned budgetary limits
• - all other activities related to the development of new curricula.

The expert will work with the Forestry and Nature Management section of Larenstein, Velp. He/she will accept short and long term postings abroad.

Requirements for the post. Interested candidates should:

• - Have a minimum of an M.Sc.-degree (or equivalent level) in forestry or natural resources management.
• - Have a minimum of two years teaching experience.
• - Have a minimum of five years experi-ence in forestry or nature management in developing countries.
• - Have affinity with problem based learn-ing.
• - Have specific experience either in forest extension or in nature conservation.
• - Be fluent in english.
• - Be available as of early 1997.

Applications should be directed to: Larenstein International Agricultural College, attn.: J.D. Lemckert, P.O. Box 9001, 6880 GB Velp, The Netherlands

For further information contact: J. D. Lemckert, Tel: +31-26 36 95 717, Fax +31 26 36 15 287, E-mail: dlet@iahlvlp.agro.nl